Underground Municipal Sewage Pipeline Subgrade Soil Stabilization Technologies: A Comprehensive Guide for Engineering Professionals

1. Introduction

The underground municipal sewage pipeline network forms the backbone of urban wastewater management systems, ensuring the safe and efficient transportation of sewage from residential, commercial, and industrial areas to treatment facilities (2). However, these pipelines are constantly exposed to various challenges that can compromise their structural integrity and functionality. Soil instability, caused by factors such as groundwater movement, soil erosion, settlement, and chemical degradation, represents a significant threat to the longevity and performance of sewage pipelines (11).

In recent years, the need for effective soil stabilization techniques has become increasingly critical due to the aging infrastructure, urban expansion, and the challenges posed by climate change (20). According to market research, the global chemical grouting service market is projected to reach USD 4,631.21 million by 2030, with a compound annual growth rate of 3.45%, highlighting the growing importance of these technologies in infrastructure maintenance and development (20).

This comprehensive guide focuses on three primary soil stabilization techniques widely used in underground municipal sewage pipeline projects: Chemical Grouting, High-Pressure Jet Grouting, and Deep Mixing Method. These methods offer distinct advantages for different soil conditions and project requirements, providing engineering professionals with valuable insights for selecting the most appropriate technique for their specific applications (27).

2. Soil Stabilization: Fundamentals and Importance

2.1 What is Soil Stabilization?

Soil stabilization is the process of improving the engineering properties of soil to enhance its load-bearing capacity, reduce compressibility, and increase resistance to erosion and water infiltration (43). The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defines soil stabilization as "improvement of the mechanical behavior of an unbound granular material by including one or more geosynthetic layers, such that deformation under applied loads is reduced by minimizing movements of the unbound granular material" (43).

2.2 Why is Soil Stabilization Important for Sewage Pipelines?

Soil stabilization plays a crucial role in maintaining the integrity of underground sewage pipelines for several reasons:

1. Structural Support: Stabilized soil provides a more uniform and reliable foundation for pipelines, reducing the risk of settlement and deformation that can lead to cracks and leaks (4).
2. Protection Against Environmental Factors: Properly stabilized soil offers enhanced resistance to erosion, groundwater infiltration, and chemical attack, all of which can degrade pipeline materials over time (6).
3. Cost-Effectiveness: Compared to traditional excavation and replacement methods, soil stabilization techniques can significantly reduce both time and cost, especially in urban areas where disruption must be minimized (20).
4. Sustainability: Many stabilization methods use locally available materials and reduce the need for extensive excavation, making them more environmentally friendly options (69).

2.3 Common Soil Stabilization Techniques

There are numerous soil stabilization techniques available, each with its own advantages and limitations. The three primary methods discussed in this guide are:

1. Chemical Grouting: Involves injecting chemical solutions into the soil to improve its structure and control water flow (17).
2. High-Pressure Jet Grouting: Uses high-pressure jets of grout to cut and mix with the existing soil, forming a solidified column or wall (7).
3. Deep Mixing Method: Employs mechanical mixing of in-situ soil with cementitious materials to form stabilized columns or walls (26).

These methods are particularly suitable for stabilizing the subgrade soils around underground sewage pipelines due to their ability to work in confined spaces and provide targeted reinforcement (29).

3. Chemical Grouting Technology

3.1 Basic Principles and Mechanisms

Chemical grouting is a soil stabilization technique that involves the injection of chemical solutions into soil or rock formations to stabilize them, mend fractures, and control water movement (20). The process forms a cemented mass that strengthens and stabilizes the ground, making it particularly effective in granular soils (20).

The basic mechanisms through which chemical grouting stabilizes soil include:

1. Permeation: The grout penetrates the void spaces between soil particles, filling them to form a solid matrix (17).
2. Consolidation: The grout binds soil particles together, increasing the overall density and strength of the soil mass (19).
3. Sealing: Chemical grouting creates a waterproof barrier that controls water flow and prevents further erosion or soil movement (17).
4. Structural Enhancement: By filling cracks and voids in concrete or rock, chemical grouting repairs fractures and improves the integrity of the structure (17).

3.2 Types of Chemical Grouts

There are several types of chemical grouts available, each with specific properties and applications:

1. Polyurethane Grouts: These are highly effective for filling voids and stabilizing soil behind structures like seawalls. They expand upon contact with water, making them excellent for stopping water flow and filling large voids (19).
2. Epoxy Grouts: Known for their high strength and excellent bonding properties, epoxy grouts are ideal for structural repairs and sealing fine cracks (24).
3. Acrylamide Grouts: These low-viscosity grouts can penetrate very fine soil particles and are commonly used for water control in fine-grained soils (24).
4. Silicate Grouts: Provide good strength and durability, making them suitable for a wide range of soil types (21).
5. Cement-Based Grouts: While not strictly "chemical" grouts, cement-based materials are often used in combination with chemical additives to improve their performance (21).

3.3 Chemical Grouting Process and Equipment

The chemical grouting process typically involves the following steps:

1. Site Investigation: Before starting the grouting process, a thorough site investigation is conducted to determine soil conditions, groundwater levels, and the extent of the area requiring stabilization (21).
2. Grout Selection: Based on the site investigation results, the appropriate grout type and formulation are selected to meet the specific project requirements (24).
3. Injection System Setup: The necessary equipment, including pumps, hoses, and injection nozzles, is set up at the site (25).
4. Grout Injection: The chemical grout is injected into the soil through pre-drilled holes or injection points. The pressure and rate of injection are carefully controlled to ensure uniform distribution (25).
5. Monitoring: Throughout the process, the injection pressure, grout take, and any potential surface effects are closely monitored to ensure the effectiveness and safety of the operation (25).
6. Curing: After injection, the grout is allowed to cure for a specified period, during which the chemical reactions that harden and strengthen the soil take place (24).

The key equipment used in chemical grouting includes:

• Grout Mixing Units: For preparing the chemical grout mixture.
• High-Pressure Injection Pumps: For delivering the grout into the soil at the required pressure.
• Injection Pipes and Nozzles: Designed to penetrate the soil and distribute the grout effectively.
• Monitoring Equipment: For measuring pressure, flow rate, and other 关键 parameters during the injection process (25).

3.4 Applications in Sewage Pipeline Projects

Chemical grouting is particularly well-suited for several applications in sewage pipeline projects:

1. Pipeline Rehabilitation: Chemical grouting can be used to stabilize the soil around existing pipelines, preventing further settlement and damage (20).
2. Sealing Leaks: Polyurethane and epoxy grouts are effective for sealing leaks in pipeline joints and cracks (19).
3. Sinkhole Prevention: By filling voids and stabilizing loose soil, chemical grouting helps prevent sinkholes that can damage pipelines (19).
4. Tunneling Support: In trenchless sewer repair projects, chemical grouting provides support during tunneling operations (16).
5. Foundation Stabilization: For stabilizing the foundation of manholes and other structures associated with sewage systems (17).

3.5 Advantages and Limitations

Advantages of Chemical Grouting:

1. Cost-Effective: Compared to traditional excavation and replacement methods, chemical grouting is often more economical, especially for large areas or difficult-to-reach locations (20).
2. Minimal Disruption: The technique requires minimal surface disruption, making it ideal for urban areas with existing infrastructure (20).
3. Highly Customizable: Chemical grouts can be formulated to meet specific project requirements, including setting time, strength, and flexibility (24).
4. Effective in Various Soil Conditions: While most effective in granular soils, advances in grout formulations have made chemical grouting applicable to a wider range of soil types (20).
5. Quick Implementation: The process can often be completed relatively quickly, reducing project timelines (20).

Limitations of Chemical Grouting:

1. Environmental Concerns: Some chemical grouts may contain hazardous materials that require careful handling and disposal (25).
2. Skill Requirements: Successful chemical grouting requires skilled operators who understand the properties of different grouts and how to apply them effectively (25).
3. Depth Limitations: In very deep applications, maintaining consistent grout pressure and distribution can be challenging (21).
4. Soil Specificity: Despite advances, some soil types and conditions may still not be suitable for chemical grouting without additional modifications (20).
5. Regulatory Compliance: The use of chemical grouts may be subject to environmental regulations that require compliance (25).

3.6 Design Considerations and Best Practices

When designing a chemical grouting project for sewage pipeline stabilization, several key considerations should be taken into account:

1. Soil Characterization: A thorough understanding of the soil properties, including grain size distribution, permeability, and moisture content, is essential for selecting the appropriate grout and injection parameters (21).
2. Hydrological Conditions: Knowledge of groundwater levels, flow rates, and chemistry is critical for determining the required grout properties and injection strategy (21).
3. Structural Requirements: The design should consider the required strength, stiffness, and durability of the stabilized soil to ensure it can support the pipeline under anticipated loads (24).
4. Environmental Factors: Potential impacts on groundwater quality and surrounding ecosystems must be evaluated, and appropriate mitigation measures implemented (25).
5. Monitoring Plan: A comprehensive monitoring plan should be developed to ensure the grouting process is effective and does not cause unintended consequences (25).

Best practices for chemical grouting include:

• Conducting pilot tests before full-scale implementation to validate the design assumptions.
• Using environmentally friendly grout formulations whenever possible.
• Ensuring proper equipment calibration and maintenance.
• Providing adequate training for personnel involved in the grouting process.
• Implementing strict quality control measures throughout the project (25).

4. High-Pressure Jet Grouting Technology

4.1 Basic Principles and Mechanisms

High-Pressure Jet Grouting (HPJG), also known as jet grouting, is a soil improvement technique that uses high-pressure jets of grout to cut and mix with the existing soil, forming a solidified column or wall (7). The process involves injecting a grout mixture at extremely high pressures (typically 20-40 MPa) to break up the soil and form a homogeneous, strengthened mass (3).

The fundamental mechanisms of HPJG include:

1. Jet Erosion: The high-pressure jet stream erodes and fractures the soil, creating space for the grout to penetrate (7).
2. Mixing: As the jetting device is rotated and withdrawn, the grout mixes with the eroded soil particles, forming a homogeneous mixture (3).
3. Solidification: The grout-soil mixture undergoes a chemical reaction that hardens over time, forming a solidified structure with improved engineering properties (7).
4. Soil Replacement: In some cases, the high-pressure jet completely replaces the original soil with grout, forming a nearly pure grout column (12).

4.2 Types of High-Pressure Jet Grouting Methods

There are several variations of the high-pressure jet grouting method, each differing in the type of jet used and the equipment employed:

1. Single-Tube Method: This is the simplest form of jet grouting, where a single tube is used to inject a high-pressure cement grout jet. The jet simultaneously cuts the soil and mixes with it to form a solidified column (12).
2. Double-Tube Method: Uses two concentric tubes - the inner tube injects high-pressure grout, while the outer tube injects compressed air. The air forms a protective sheath around the grout jet, enhancing its cutting ability and range (12).
3. Triple-Tube Method: Employs three concentric tubes. The innermost tube injects high-pressure water to cut the soil, the middle tube injects compressed air to enhance the cutting action, and the outer tube injects low-pressure grout to fill the void created by the water jet (12).
4. MJS (Modified Jet Grouting) Method: A more advanced technique that allows for better control of ground displacement and backflow of excess grout. It uses multiple ports for jetting and backflow prevention, making it suitable for sensitive urban environments .
5. RJP (Rotary Jet Pile) Method: Features a rotating nozzle that can produce jets in any direction, allowing for more precise control of the grout distribution and column shape .

4.3 High-Pressure Jet Grouting Process and Equipment

The high-pressure jet grouting process typically involves the following steps:

1. Site Preparation: The work area is cleared and prepared, and the equipment is mobilized and set up (7).
2. Drilling: A 先导 hole is drilled to the desired depth using a rotary or percussion drilling method (12).
3. Jetting Equipment Installation: The jet grouting tube is inserted into the drilled hole. For some methods, the drilling and jetting can be done simultaneously (7).
4. Grout Mixing: The grout, typically a cement-based mixture, is prepared according to the design specifications (12).
5. Jetting Operation: The high-pressure jet is activated, and the tube is slowly rotated and withdrawn at a controlled rate. The jetting parameters (pressure, flow rate, rotation speed, and withdrawal rate) are carefully controlled to achieve the desired column diameter and strength (7).
6. Post-Grouting Operations: After jetting is complete, the equipment is cleaned, and any excess grout is removed from the surface (12).

The key equipment used in high-pressure jet grouting includes:

• Drilling Rigs: For creating the initial borehole.
• High-Pressure Grout Pumps: Capable of generating pressures up to 40 MPa or higher.
• Jetting Tubes and Nozzles: Specially designed to withstand high pressures and produce the desired jet pattern.
• Grout Mixing and Storage Units: For preparing and storing the grout mixture.
• Control Systems: For monitoring and adjusting the jetting parameters in real-time (12).

4.4 Applications in Sewage Pipeline Projects

High-pressure jet grouting is particularly useful in sewage pipeline projects for the following applications:

1. Pipeline Foundation Stabilization: HPJG can be used to strengthen the soil around existing or new sewage pipelines, providing a more stable foundation and reducing the risk of settlement (5).
2. Seepage Control: By creating impermeable barriers around sewage pipelines, HPJG can prevent groundwater infiltration into the pipeline and reduce the risk of soil erosion (7).
3. Excavation Support: In areas where excavation near existing pipelines is necessary, HPJG can be used to create soil-cement walls that provide lateral support and prevent soil movement (12).
4. Sinkhole Remediation: HPJG can be used to fill voids and stabilize soil in areas where sinkholes pose a threat to sewage pipelines (5).
5. Underpinning: For supporting or raising existing structures where pipelines pass beneath, HPJG can provide the necessary structural support (12).
6. Soil Improvement in Problematic Soils: HPJG is effective in improving the properties of soft clays, loose sands, and other problematic soils that may pose challenges for sewage pipeline construction or maintenance (7).

4.5 Advantages and Limitations

Advantages of High-Pressure Jet Grouting:

1. Versatility: HPJG can be used in a wide range of soil conditions, from soft clays to gravels and even some types of weak rock (7).
2. Precision: The technique allows for precise control over the location and shape of the stabilized columns or walls (12).
3. Minimal Ground Disturbance: Compared to traditional excavation methods, HPJG causes minimal disturbance to the surrounding soil and existing structures (12).
4. High Strength: The resulting soil-cement columns can achieve high compressive strengths, typically in the range of 5-30 MPa, depending on the soil type and grout formulation (7).
5. Waterproofing: HPJG creates a nearly impermeable barrier that effectively controls groundwater flow and prevents seepage (7).
6. Depth Capability: HPJG can be applied at significant depths, making it suitable for deep pipeline installations (12).

Limitations of High-Pressure Jet Grouting:

1. Cost: HPJG is generally more expensive than some other soil stabilization methods, particularly for large-scale projects (12).
2. Equipment Complexity: The specialized equipment required for HPJG can be complex and requires skilled operators (7).
3. Environmental Impact: The high-pressure injection process can cause ground vibrations and noise, which may be problematic in sensitive urban environments (12).
4. Backflow Issues: Excess grout can flow back to the surface, creating a mess and potentially causing environmental contamination if not properly managed .
5. Soil Specificity: While versatile, HPJG may not be suitable for all soil types, particularly those with large boulders or excessive organic content (7).
6. Design Uncertainties: The exact diameter and strength of the resulting columns can vary depending on soil conditions, making design predictions challenging (12).

4.6 Design Considerations and Best Practices

When designing a high-pressure jet grouting project for sewage pipeline stabilization, several important factors should be considered:

1. Soil Properties: The type, density, and composition of the soil will significantly influence the effectiveness of HPJG. Detailed soil characterization through site investigations is essential (7).
2. Groundwater Conditions: The presence and flow of groundwater can affect the grout penetration and hardening process. Adjustments to the grout mix and injection parameters may be necessary in high groundwater conditions (5).
3. Required Strength and Impermeability: The design must specify the required compressive strength and permeability of the stabilized soil to ensure it meets the project requirements (7).
4. Pipeline Protection: Special care must be taken to protect existing pipelines from the effects of the high-pressure jetting, including vibration, soil displacement, and temperature changes (12).
5. Environmental Factors: Potential impacts on surrounding ecosystems and groundwater quality should be evaluated, and appropriate mitigation measures implemented (12).

Best practices for HPJG include:

• Conducting field trials to determine the optimal jetting parameters for the specific site conditions.
• Using environmentally friendly grout additives where possible.
• Implementing comprehensive monitoring during the jetting process to detect any unexpected effects.
• Ensuring proper equipment maintenance and calibration to achieve consistent results.
• Providing adequate training for all personnel involved in the project.
• Developing a contingency plan for dealing with unexpected conditions or issues during the jetting process (12).

5. Deep Mixing Method Technology

5.1 Basic Principles and Mechanisms

The Deep Mixing Method (DMM), also known as Deep Soil Mixing or Cement Deep Soil Mixing (DSM/CDSM), is an in-situ soil treatment technique in which native soils or fills are blended with cementitious and/or other materials (typically referred to as binders) to form stabilized columns or walls (26). The process involves mechanically mixing the soil with binders at depths where traditional surface mixing methods are not feasible.

The fundamental mechanisms of the Deep Mixing Method include:

1. Mechanical Mixing: Specialized equipment with rotating blades or augers mixes the in-situ soil with binder materials (27).
2. Chemical Stabilization: The binder materials (usually cement or lime) undergo hydration reactions with the soil and water, forming cementitious compounds that bind the soil particles together (29).
3. Physical Improvement: The mixing process breaks up soil aggregates and redistributes the binder, creating a more homogeneous soil-binder mixture with improved engineering properties (27).
4. Structural Formation: The treated soil forms columns or walls that can provide increased strength, reduced compressibility, and improved resistance to water flow (26).

5.2 Types of Deep Mixing Methods

There are two main types of Deep Mixing Methods, distinguished by the form in which the binder is introduced:

1. Wet Mixing Method: Also known as Deep Cement Mixing (DCM), this method uses cement slurry as the binder. The slurry is injected into the soil through nozzles on the mixing blades, and the two are thoroughly mixed in-situ (26).
2. Dry Mixing Method: Also called Dry Jet Mixing (DJM), this method uses dry cement or lime powder as the binder. The dry binder is pneumatically injected into the soil and mixed using specialized mixing equipment (26).

In addition to these basic types, there are several variations of the Deep Mixing Method, including:

• Continuous Flight Auger (CFA) Mixing: Uses a continuous flight auger to both drill and mix the binder with the soil (27).
• High-Pressure Injection Mixing: Combines high-pressure injection of binder with mechanical mixing for improved penetration and distribution (27).
• Combined Mixing Methods: Integrates mechanical mixing with high-pressure injection for enhanced performance in challenging soil conditions (27).

5.3 Deep Mixing Method Process and Equipment

The Deep Mixing Method typically involves the following steps:

1. Site Preparation: The work area is cleared and leveled, and any obstacles are removed. The equipment is mobilized and set up (30).
2. Mix Design Development: Based on the soil properties and project requirements, the appropriate binder type, dosage, and mixing parameters are determined through laboratory testing (33).
3. Equipment Setup: The deep mixing rig is positioned over the first treatment location, and the mixing tool is lowered to the desired depth (30).
4. Mixing Process: The mixing tool rotates and either ascends or descends while injecting the binder material. The mixing continues until the soil and binder are thoroughly combined (30).
5. Quality Control: During and after the mixing process, various quality control measures are implemented to ensure the treated soil meets the required specifications (33).
6. Post-Treatment Evaluation: After the binder has cured, the treated soil is evaluated through various testing methods to confirm its properties (33).

The key equipment used in the Deep Mixing Method includes:

• Deep Mixing Rigs: Specialized equipment that can drill to the required depth and mix the binder with the soil.
• Mixing Tools: These can be augers, paddles, or other specialized blades designed to effectively mix the soil and binder.
• Binder Delivery Systems: For wet mixing, this includes slurry mixing tanks and pumps; for dry mixing, it includes powder storage silos and pneumatic delivery systems.
• Monitoring Equipment: Used to track mixing depth, rotation speed, penetration rate, and binder dosage (30).

5.4 Applications in Sewage Pipeline Projects

The Deep Mixing Method is particularly valuable in sewage pipeline projects for the following applications:

1. Pipeline Foundation Improvement: DMM can be used to strengthen the soil around existing or new sewage pipelines, reducing the risk of settlement and improving load-bearing capacity (29).
2. Lateral Support for Excavations: When excavations are needed near existing pipelines, DMM can create soil-cement walls that provide lateral support and prevent soil movement that could damage the pipelines (33).
3. Seepage Control: By creating impermeable barriers around sewage pipelines, DMM can prevent groundwater infiltration into the pipeline and reduce the risk of soil erosion (29).
4. Soil Improvement in Problematic Soils: DMM is highly effective in improving the properties of soft clays, organic soils, and other problematic soils that may pose challenges for sewage pipeline construction or maintenance (29).
5. Underpinning of Existing Structures: When sewage pipelines pass beneath existing structures, DMM can be used to underpin those structures and provide additional support (33).
6. Groundwater Cutoff Walls: DMM can create vertical barriers that control groundwater flow and prevent seepage into excavation areas or around pipelines (33).

5.5 Advantages and Limitations

Advantages of the Deep Mixing Method:

1. Minimal Ground Disturbance: DMM causes minimal vibration and ground displacement compared to many other soil improvement methods, making it suitable for use near existing structures and pipelines (29).
2. Versatility: The method can be applied in a wide range of soil conditions, from soft clays to silts and sands, and even some types of organic soils (28).
3. Precision: The mixing process can be precisely controlled to target specific areas and achieve the desired treatment geometry (29).
4. Cost-Effectiveness: For many applications, DMM offers a cost-effective alternative to traditional excavation and replacement methods, particularly for deep-seated problems (33).
5. Environmental Benefits: DMM can reduce the need for excavation and transportation of soil, resulting in lower carbon emissions and less waste (29).
6. Strength Development: The treated soil can achieve high compressive strengths (typically 1-5 MPa, but higher in some cases) and low permeability, providing both strength and water resistance (28).

Limitations of the Deep Mixing Method:

1. Depth Limitations: The effectiveness of DMM decreases with depth due to increased soil resistance and the difficulty of achieving thorough mixing at greater depths (33).
2. Equipment Size: The mixing rigs can be large and may require significant workspace, which can be a challenge in congested urban areas (29).
3. Soil Specificity: While versatile, DMM may not be suitable for soils with large boulders, excessive gravel content, or extremely high organic matter (28).
4. Curing Time: The treated soil requires time for the binder to cure and develop strength, which can extend project schedules (33).
5. Skill Requirements: The success of DMM depends heavily on the skill and experience of the operators, particularly in challenging soil conditions (33).
6. Binder Dependency: The performance of the treated soil is highly dependent on the quality and quantity of the binder used, which can increase material costs (29).

5.6 Design Considerations and Best Practices

When designing a Deep Mixing Method project for sewage pipeline stabilization, several important factors should be considered:

1. Soil Characterization: A thorough understanding of the soil properties, including strength, compressibility, permeability, and organic content, is essential for selecting the appropriate binder type and dosage (29).
2. Hydrological Conditions: Knowledge of groundwater levels, chemistry, and flow rates is critical for determining the required binder properties and mixing parameters (33).
3. Structural Requirements: The design should specify the required strength, stiffness, and durability of the treated soil to ensure it can support the pipeline under anticipated loads (29).
4. Environmental Factors: Potential impacts on surrounding ecosystems and groundwater quality should be evaluated, and appropriate mitigation measures implemented (33).
5. Project Constraints: The design must consider site access limitations, existing infrastructure, and project schedule constraints (29).

Best practices for the Deep Mixing Method include:

• Conducting laboratory mix tests to determine the optimal binder type and dosage for the specific soil conditions.
• Performing field trials to validate the design parameters and refine the mixing process.
• Implementing comprehensive quality control and assurance procedures throughout the project.
• Providing adequate training for all personnel involved in the mixing process.
• Using advanced monitoring technologies to ensure the mixing process is performed according to specifications.
• Developing contingency plans for dealing with unexpected soil conditions or equipment issues.
• Considering the long-term performance of the treated soil, including potential chemical interactions with the soil and groundwater (33).

6. Comparison of Soil Stabilization Techniques

6.1 Technical Comparison

The following table provides a technical comparison of the three soil stabilization techniques discussed in this guide:

 

Parameter	Chemical Grouting	High-Pressure Jet Grouting	Deep Mixing Method
Soil Types	Most effective in granular soils; less effective in clays and silts	Effective in a wide range of soils, including clays, silts, and sands	Effective in soft clays, silts, and sands; less effective in gravels and soils with large boulders
Treatment Depth	Limited by grout penetration; typically up to 30 meters	Can reach depths of 30-50 meters depending on equipment	Generally limited to depths of 15-30 meters
Typical Column Diameter	Not applicable (fills voids rather than forming columns)	0.6-2.0 meters depending on method and soil conditions	0.5-1.2 meters
Compressive Strength	Varies widely depending on grout type; typically 1-10 MPa	5-30 MPa	1-5 MPa (can be higher with special formulations)
Permeability	Low permeability, good for water control	Very low permeability, excellent for water control	Low permeability, good for water control
Treatment Speed	Generally fast, can treat large areas quickly	Slower than chemical grouting but faster than deep mixing	Relatively slow due to the mixing process
Equipment Size	Small to medium-sized equipment	Medium to large-sized equipment	Large equipment requiring significant workspace
Noise and Vibration	Low to moderate	High noise and vibration	Moderate noise and vibration

6.2 Cost Comparison

The cost comparison of the three techniques depends on several factors including site conditions, treatment depth, required strength, and project size. However, the following general observations can be made:

1. Initial Equipment Costs: High-Pressure Jet Grouting typically requires the most expensive equipment, followed by Deep Mixing Method, with Chemical Grouting having the lowest initial equipment costs (12).
2. Material Costs: Chemical grouts can be relatively expensive, especially specialty formulations. Cement-based materials for HPJG and DMM are generally less costly but require larger quantities (20).
3. Labor Costs: All three methods require skilled operators, but the labor requirements for Deep Mixing Method are typically higher due to the more complex mixing process (29).
4. Project-Specific Costs: For small-scale projects or projects requiring only localized treatment, Chemical Grouting is often the most cost-effective option. For larger projects or those requiring deep treatment, High-Pressure Jet Grouting or Deep Mixing Method may offer better value (12).

In general, the cost-effectiveness of each method depends on the specific project requirements and site conditions. For example, in loose sandy soils requiring water control, Chemical Grouting may be the most economical choice. In soft clay soils requiring significant strength improvement, the Deep Mixing Method may provide the best value. For projects requiring both high strength and water tightness at greater depths, High-Pressure Jet Grouting may be the most appropriate despite its higher initial costs (7).

6.3 Environmental Impact Comparison

The environmental impacts of the three techniques vary significantly:

1. Chemical Grouting: Some chemical grouts may contain hazardous materials that can potentially leach into groundwater if not properly managed. However, many modern grout formulations are environmentally friendly and biodegradable (25).
2. High-Pressure Jet Grouting: HPJG typically uses cement-based grouts, which have lower environmental impact compared to many chemical grouts. However, the high-pressure injection process can cause soil displacement and vibration that may affect nearby ecosystems (12).
3. Deep Mixing Method: DMM uses cementitious materials that are generally environmentally benign. The method causes minimal soil disturbance and generates less waste compared to excavation-based methods (29).

In terms of sustainability:

• Deep Mixing Method is often considered the most sustainable option as it uses locally available materials, minimizes excavation, and produces less waste.
• High-Pressure Jet Grouting also has good sustainability credentials due to its minimal excavation requirements and use of cement-based materials.
• Chemical Grouting's sustainability depends heavily on the type of grout used. Environmentally friendly grouts can make this method quite sustainable, while older chemical formulations may have significant environmental drawbacks (25).

6.4 Application-Specific Recommendations

Based on the technical, cost, and environmental comparisons, the following recommendations can be made for selecting the most appropriate soil stabilization technique for sewage pipeline projects:

1. Chemical Grouting: Recommended for:
   • Fine to medium-grained soils where permeation is desired.
   • Projects requiring water control and seepage prevention.
   • Localized repairs and targeted soil improvement.
   • Projects with limited access or tight space constraints.
   • Situations where minimal ground disturbance is critical (17).
2. High-Pressure Jet Grouting: Recommended for:
   • Projects requiring both strength improvement and water tightness.
   • Deeper soil treatment (up to 50 meters).
   • Creation of soil-cement columns or walls for excavation support.
   • Soils with a mix of different particle sizes, including some gravels.
   • Projects where high strength (5-30 MPa) is required (7).
3. Deep Mixing Method: Recommended for:
   • Soft clays and silts where strength improvement is the primary objective.
   • Projects requiring large volumes of soil treatment.
   • Shallow to moderate depths (up to 30 meters).
   • Projects where minimizing ground vibration and disturbance is important.
   • Situations where long-term durability and resistance to chemical attack are required (26).

It's important to note that in many cases, a combination of these techniques may provide the best solution. For example, Chemical Grouting could be used for initial water control, followed by Deep Mixing Method for structural support (20).

7. Case Studies

7.1 Chemical Grouting Case Study: Foundation Stabilization for a Sewage Pump Station

Project Background: A sewage pump station in a coastal city was experiencing settlement due to soft, water-saturated soils. Traditional foundation stabilization methods were considered too disruptive and costly, so chemical grouting was selected as the preferred solution (19).

Technical Approach:

1. Site Investigation: A comprehensive site investigation revealed that the pump station was founded on a layer of soft marine clay overlain by a thin layer of sand.
2. Grout Selection: A polyurethane grout was selected for its ability to expand upon contact with water and fill voids in the soft clay.
3. Injection Strategy: The grout was injected through multiple injection points arranged in a grid pattern around and beneath the pump station foundation.
4. Injection Parameters: The grout was injected at pressures ranging from 2 to 5 MPa, with careful monitoring of ground heave and building settlement (19).

Results and Outcomes:

• The settlement was successfully arrested, and the pump station returned to normal operation without further issues.
• The chemical grouting was completed in just two weeks, significantly faster than traditional methods.
• The project was completed with minimal disruption to the surrounding area and existing infrastructure.
• Follow-up monitoring over a five-year period showed no recurrence of settlement, confirming the long-term effectiveness of the solution (19).

7.2 High-Pressure Jet Grouting Case Study: Pipeline Protection During Tunnel Construction

Project Background: A new metro tunnel was being constructed near an existing sewage pipeline in a densely populated urban area. The proximity of the tunnel to the pipeline posed a significant risk of settlement and damage, so high-pressure jet grouting was employed to stabilize the soil and protect the pipeline (5).

Technical Approach:

1. Geotechnical Assessment: The soil was a mixture of silty clay and fine sand with groundwater at a depth of 3 meters.
2. HPJG Design: A triple-tube jet grouting system was selected to create a protective barrier between the tunnel and the sewage pipeline. The design specified columns with a diameter of 1.2 meters and a compressive strength of at least 10 MPa.
3. Execution Plan: The jet grouting was performed in stages, with careful monitoring of ground movements and pipeline performance during each stage.
4. Parameter Optimization: The jetting parameters (pressure, rotation speed, withdrawal rate) were optimized based on initial test columns (5).

Results and Outcomes:

• The HPJG created an effective protective barrier that minimized ground movements during tunnel construction.
• The existing sewage pipeline experienced minimal displacement (less than 5 mm), well within acceptable limits.
• The project was completed on schedule and within budget, demonstrating the effectiveness of HPJG for pipeline protection in urban environments.
• Post-construction monitoring confirmed the long-term stability of the treated soil and the continued performance of the sewage pipeline (5).

7.3 Deep Mixing Method Case Study: Soft Soil Improvement for a Sewage Treatment Plant Expansion

Project Background: A sewage treatment plant expansion required the construction of new tanks and infrastructure on soft, organic-rich soils. Traditional methods of soil replacement were infeasible due to the large area and depth of the soft layer, so the Deep Mixing Method was selected for soil improvement (29).

Technical Approach:

1. Soil Characterization: The soil profile consisted of 6-8 meters of soft, organic clay overlying dense sand.
2. Mix Design: Laboratory tests determined that a cement dosage of 15% by dry soil weight would provide the required compressive strength of 1.5 MPa.
3. Treatment Design: The entire area to be developed was treated with overlapping deep mixing columns arranged in a grid pattern. The columns were 0.8 meters in diameter and extended to the full depth of the soft clay layer.
4. Quality Control: During construction, the mixing depth, rotation speed, and cement injection rate were continuously monitored to ensure compliance with specifications (29).

Results and Outcomes:

• The treated soil achieved the required compressive strength, allowing the construction of the new tanks and infrastructure without excessive settlement.
• The total settlement of the treated area was less than 20 mm, well within the design limits.
• The project was completed with minimal environmental impact and no disruption to the existing treatment plant operations.
• Follow-up testing after five years showed that the treated soil had maintained its strength and performance, confirming the long-term effectiveness of the Deep Mixing Method (29).

7.4 Comparative Case Study: Three Techniques Applied to a Single Site

Project Background: A major sewage pipeline rehabilitation project in a city with diverse soil conditions provided an opportunity to compare the performance of chemical grouting, high-pressure jet grouting, and deep mixing method at a single site .

Technical Approach:

1. Site Conditions: The site included three distinct soil zones: Zone A (loose sand), Zone B (soft clay), and Zone C (silty sand with some gravel).
2. Treatment Methods:
   • Zone A (Loose Sand): Chemical grouting with acrylamide grout was used to improve density and control seepage.
   • Zone B (Soft Clay): Deep mixing method with cement was employed to increase strength and reduce compressibility.
   • Zone C (Silty Sand with Gravel): Triple-tube high-pressure jet grouting was used to create structural columns with high strength and water tightness.
3. Design Parameters: Each method was designed to achieve a target compressive strength of 2 MPa and a permeability of less than 1x10^-7 cm/s .

Results and Outcomes:

• Performance Comparison:
  • Zone A (Chemical Grouting): Achieved the required strength and permeability but showed some variability in performance.
  • Zone B (Deep Mixing): Consistently achieved the design parameters with minimal variability.
  • Zone C (HPJG): Exceeded the strength requirements but was the most expensive option.
• Cost Comparison: Chemical grouting was the most cost-effective in Zone A, Deep Mixing Method was the most economical in Zone B, and HPJG was the only viable option in Zone C despite its higher cost.
• Time Comparison: Chemical grouting was the fastest method, followed by HPJG and then Deep Mixing Method.
• Environmental Impact: Deep Mixing Method had the least environmental impact, followed by HPJG and then Chemical Grouting (due to the use of chemical grouts) .

Key Lessons Learned:

• No single method is optimal for all soil conditions; the selection should be based on careful consideration of site-specific factors.
• Combining different methods can provide a cost-effective solution for sites with diverse soil conditions.
• Early site characterization and testing are critical for selecting the most appropriate stabilization method.
• Long-term monitoring is essential to validate the performance of the selected method and inform future projects .

8. Implementation Considerations for Engineering Professionals

8.1 Project Planning and Preparation

Successful implementation of soil stabilization techniques for sewage pipeline projects requires careful planning and preparation:

1. Comprehensive Site Investigation:
   • Conduct detailed soil sampling and testing to characterize the soil profile.
   • Perform groundwater analysis to determine the quality and flow conditions.
   • Identify the location and condition of existing utilities and infrastructure.
   • Document any potential environmental constraints or sensitivities (21).
2. Project-Specific Design:
   • Develop a detailed design based on the specific soil conditions and project requirements.
   • Conduct laboratory testing to optimize the grout or binder mix design.
   • Determine the appropriate treatment geometry (e.g., column spacing, depth, diameter).
   • Specify the required engineering properties (strength, permeability, etc.) (7).
3. Regulatory Compliance:
   • Identify and comply with all relevant environmental regulations.
   • Obtain necessary permits for soil treatment activities.
   • Address any concerns related to potential impacts on groundwater quality.
   • Ensure compliance with occupational health and safety standards (25).
4. Stakeholder Communication:
   • Engage with all relevant stakeholders, including regulatory agencies, neighboring property owners, and utility operators.
   • Develop a communication plan to keep stakeholders informed throughout the project.
   • Address any concerns or questions proactively (20).

8.2 Equipment Selection and Setup

The selection and proper setup of equipment are critical to the success of any soil stabilization project:

1. Equipment Selection:
   • Choose equipment that is appropriate for the selected technique and site conditions.
   • Consider factors such as treatment depth, required capacity, and site access limitations.
   • Ensure the equipment is in good working condition and properly calibrated.
   • For chemical grouting, select pumps and injection equipment compatible with the chosen grout (25).
2. Site Access and Setup:
   • Ensure adequate access for equipment mobilization and operation.
   • Prepare the work area by clearing obstacles and leveling the ground.
   • Establish appropriate storage areas for materials, ensuring proper containment and environmental protection.
   • Set up mixing and pumping stations in locations that minimize interference with other activities (7).
3. Monitoring Systems:
   • Install equipment to monitor key parameters during the treatment process (e.g., pressure, flow rate, mixing depth).
   • Set up systems to monitor ground movements, settlement, and any potential impacts on existing structures.
   • Implement real-time data logging and analysis to allow for adjustments during the process (5).

8.3 Quality Control and Assurance

Maintaining strict quality control and assurance throughout the project is essential for achieving the desired results:

1. Material Quality:
   • Source materials from reputable suppliers and verify their compliance with specifications.
   • Conduct regular checks of grout or binder properties (e.g., viscosity, setting time, strength).
   • Maintain proper storage conditions to prevent deterioration of materials.
   • Document all material deliveries and testing results (25).
2. Process Control:
   • Establish clear procedures for equipment setup, operation, and shutdown.
   • Monitor key process parameters (e.g., injection pressure, mixing speed, withdrawal rate) continuously.
   • Implement corrective actions promptly if deviations from the design parameters are detected.
   • Maintain detailed records of all activities and measurements (7).
3. Testing and Verification:
   • Perform regular in-situ testing (e.g., cone penetration tests, pressuremeter tests) to evaluate the effectiveness of the treatment.
   • Collect samples of the treated soil for laboratory testing to confirm strength, permeability, and other properties.
   • Conduct post-treatment monitoring to assess long-term performance.
   • Compare results to the design specifications and address any deficiencies (5).

8.4 Safety Considerations

Safety should be a top priority throughout any soil stabilization project:

1. Hazard Identification:
   • Identify potential hazards associated with the selected technique and site conditions.
   • Evaluate risks related to equipment operation, material handling, and environmental factors.
   • Consider the impact of groundwater conditions and soil gases on worker safety (25).
2. Safety Training:
   • Provide comprehensive training for all personnel involved in the project.
   • Ensure workers are familiar with the specific hazards associated with the selected technique.
   • Train personnel in emergency procedures and first aid (25).
3. Personal Protective Equipment (PPE):
   • Provide appropriate PPE based on the identified hazards.
   • Ensure PPE is properly maintained and used correctly.
   • For chemical grouting, provide respiratory protection and protective clothing to prevent exposure to hazardous materials (25).
4. Site Safety Measures:
   • Establish clear work zones and implement appropriate barriers and signage.
   • Ensure proper ventilation in confined spaces.
   • Implement measures to control dust, noise, and vibration.
   • Provide adequate lighting and access routes (25).

8.5 Post-Construction Monitoring and Maintenance

The work doesn't end with the completion of the soil stabilization treatment. Proper post-construction monitoring and maintenance are essential:

1. Short-Term Monitoring:
   • Establish a monitoring program to track the performance of the stabilized soil and the associated sewage pipeline.
   • Monitor settlement, soil moisture, and any potential signs of distress.
   • Collect data regularly and analyze trends to identify any potential issues early (5).
2. Long-Term Performance Assessment:
   • Implement a long-term monitoring plan to evaluate the durability and performance of the stabilization over time.
   • Schedule periodic inspections to check for any changes in soil conditions or pipeline performance.
   • Maintain records of all monitoring data for future reference and comparison (19).
3. Preventive Maintenance:
   • Develop a maintenance plan based on the results of the monitoring program.
   • Address any minor issues promptly to prevent them from developing into more serious problems.
   • Implement measures to protect the stabilized soil from potential future threats (e.g., changes in groundwater conditions, nearby construction activities) (5).
4. Documentation and Knowledge Transfer:
   • Prepare comprehensive as-built documentation, including details of the stabilization work and monitoring results.
   • Conduct a post-project review to document lessons learned and best practices.
   • Share knowledge and experience with other engineering professionals through case studies and technical publications (33).

9. Future Trends and Innovations

9.1 Technological Advancements

The field of soil stabilization for sewage pipeline projects is continuously evolving, with several promising technological advancements on the horizon:

1. Advanced Grouting Materials:
   • Nanotechnology: The use of nanomaterials (e.g., nano-silica, carbon nanotubes) to enhance the properties of grouts, including strength, durability, and permeability (6).
   • Self-Healing Materials: Development of grouts that can autonomously repair microcracks, extending the service life of stabilized soils .
   • Environmentally Friendly Formulations: Increasing focus on biodegradable and non-toxic grout materials that minimize environmental impact (25).
2. Intelligent Monitoring Systems:
   • IoT-Based Sensors: Integration of Internet of Things (IoT) technology for real-time monitoring of soil conditions and pipeline performance.
   • Automated Data Analysis: Development of machine learning algorithms to analyze monitoring data and predict potential issues before they occur.
   • Drone and Robotics: Use of unmanned aerial vehicles and robotic systems for site inspection and monitoring (71).
3. Advanced Mixing and Injection Technologies:
   • Robotic Mixing Systems: Development of autonomous or semi-autonomous mixing equipment for more precise and efficient treatment.
   • Directional Drilling and Injection: Advancements in directional drilling technology to allow for more precise placement of grout in complex soil conditions.
   • Enhanced Jetting Systems: Improvements in high-pressure jet grouting equipment to increase penetration depth and control (32).

9.2 Sustainable Practices

Sustainability is becoming an increasingly important consideration in soil stabilization for sewage pipeline projects:

1. Waste Utilization:
   • Recycled Materials: Increasing use of industrial by-products (e.g., fly ash, slag, silica fume) as partial replacements for cement in grouts and binders.
   • Wastewater Treatment Sludge: Innovative approaches to using treated sewage sludge as a component in soil stabilization materials (6).
   • Construction and Demolition Waste: Incorporation of crushed concrete and other construction waste into stabilization projects (69).
2. Energy Efficiency:
   • Low-Energy Mixing Processes: Development of mixing technologies that require less energy while achieving better results.
   • Renewable Energy Integration: Use of solar or other renewable energy sources to power stabilization equipment.
   • Energy Recovery: Exploration of methods to recover energy from the chemical reactions involved in soil stabilization (69).
3. Carbon Reduction:
   • Low-Carbon Cement Alternatives: Growing interest in using alternative binders with lower carbon footprints, such as geopolymers and calcium sulfoaluminate cements.
   • Carbon Sequestration: Development of stabilization methods that capture and store carbon dioxide, potentially even using it as a grouting agent in some applications.
   • Life Cycle Assessment: Increased emphasis on evaluating the full life cycle environmental impact of soil stabilization projects (69).

9.3 Digital Transformation

The digital transformation of the construction industry is having a significant impact on soil stabilization techniques:

1. Digital Twin Technology:
   • Creation of virtual models (digital twins) that simulate the behavior of stabilized soils and pipelines under various conditions.
   • Integration of real-time monitoring data into digital twins to enable more accurate predictions and decision-making.
   • Use of digital twins for training, planning, and optimizing stabilization projects (71).
2. Building Information Modeling (BIM) Integration:
   • Integration of soil stabilization data into comprehensive BIM models for better coordination with other aspects of infrastructure projects.
   • Use of BIM to visualize and optimize the placement of stabilization elements.
   • Development of BIM standards for soil stabilization to facilitate information exchange between different stakeholders (71).
3. Predictive Analytics:
   • Application of big data and artificial intelligence to analyze historical project data and predict optimal stabilization methods for future projects.
   • Development of predictive models that can estimate the long-term performance of stabilized soils based on initial conditions and treatment parameters.
   • Use of simulation software to optimize treatment designs before implementation (71).

9.4 Emerging Methods and Applications

Several emerging methods and applications show promise for the future of soil stabilization in sewage pipeline projects:

1. Microbially Induced Calcite Precipitation (MICP):
   • A biological soil improvement technique that uses microorganisms to precipitate calcium carbonate, enhancing soil strength and reducing permeability.
   • Environmentally friendly alternative to chemical stabilization methods.
   • Still in the research and development phase but showing promising results in laboratory and small-scale field tests (80).
2. Electrokinetic Soil Stabilization:
   • Uses electrical currents to enhance the penetration of chemical stabilizers in low-permeability soils.
   • Can be used to treat fine-grained soils that are difficult to stabilize with traditional methods.
   • Still relatively expensive and not widely used in practice but shows potential for niche applications .
3. 3D-Printed Soil Structures:
   • Development of additive manufacturing techniques for creating custom-designed soil structures.
   • Potential to create complex stabilization patterns tailored to specific pipeline protection needs.
   • Currently in the experimental stage but could revolutionize soil stabilization in the future (71).
4. Advanced Trenchless Technologies:
   • Integration of soil stabilization with advanced trenchless pipeline rehabilitation methods (e.g., cured-in-place pipe, pipe bursting).
   • Development of systems that can simultaneously stabilize the soil and rehabilitate the pipeline.
   • Growing interest in comprehensive solutions that address both pipeline and soil issues simultaneously (16).

10. Conclusion

Soil stabilization techniques play a crucial role in ensuring the long-term performance and reliability of underground sewage pipelines. The three methods discussed in this guide—Chemical Grouting, High-Pressure Jet Grouting, and Deep Mixing Method—offer distinct advantages and are suitable for different soil conditions and project requirements (20).

Key Takeaways:

1. Method Selection: The choice of stabilization method should be based on careful consideration of soil conditions, project requirements, environmental factors, and budget constraints. No single method is optimal for all situations .
2. Integrated Approach: Combining different stabilization methods can often provide the most effective and cost-efficient solution, particularly for complex sites with diverse soil conditions .
3. Advanced Technologies: Continuous advancements in materials, equipment, and monitoring systems are improving the effectiveness and sustainability of soil stabilization techniques. Staying informed about these developments is essential for engineering professionals (71).
4. Sustainability Considerations: Increasing emphasis on sustainability is driving the development of environmentally friendly stabilization methods and materials. This trend is expected to accelerate in the coming years (69).
5. Long-Term Performance: Proper design, implementation, and monitoring are critical for ensuring the long-term performance of stabilized soils. Investing in comprehensive site investigations and quality control measures upfront can save significant costs and problems in the long run (33).

As urban infrastructure continues to age and expand, the importance of effective soil stabilization techniques for sewage pipelines will only increase. By staying informed about the latest developments and applying a thoughtful, site-specific approach to method selection and implementation, engineering professionals can ensure the continued reliability and performance of these critical systems (20).

The future of soil stabilization for sewage pipeline projects looks promising, with ongoing advancements in materials science, digital technologies, and sustainable practices. By embracing these innovations while maintaining a focus on fundamental engineering principles, we can develop more effective, efficient, and environmentally friendly solutions for the challenges ahead (71).

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[54] ISO 4845:2023 - Ships and marine technology — Combined rigging for deep-sea mooring https://www.iso.org/standard/80384.html

[55] A Comparison Of ISO & ASTM Standards - Corten Steel Tube https://cortensteeltube.com/blog/comparison-of-iso-and-astm-standards/

[56] D6910/D6910M Standard Test Method for Marsh Funnel Viscosity of Construction Slurries https://www.astm.org/d6910_d6910m-19.html

[57] ASTM vs. ISO standards in the coatings industry. Part 1: Introduction http://www.linkedin.com/pulse/astm-vs-iso-standards-coatings-industry-part-1-artur-pa%C5%82asz-ph-d-

[58] ISO, ASTM, JIS, EN Metal Standards: Key Differences Explained - HDC https://hdcmfg.com/resources/blog/understanding-metal-material-standards/

[59] DBJT 13-483-2025 预拌流态固化土技术标准.docx - 人人文库 https://m.renrendoc.com/paper/406146075.html

[60] 污染土壤修复工程技术规范 固化/稳定化_中华人民共和国生态环境部(pdf) https://www.mee.gov.cn/ywgz/fgbz/bz/bzwb/other/hjbhgc/202302/W020230214366276676261.pdf

[61] 《岩土固化剂应用技术规程》-20250323141953.pdf-原创力文档 https://m.book118.com/html/2025/0323/5324021102012122.shtm

[62] 《港口及道路工程流态土和固化土施工技术规范(征求意见稿)》.docx - 人人文库 https://m.renrendoc.com/paper/417849943.html

[63] 道路软土地基强力搅拌就地固化 技术规程(pdf) http://www.cecs.org.cn/uploads/soft/210301/1-2103010T457.pdf

[64] 道路工程固化土试验标准-20250101181525.pdf-原创力文档 https://m.book118.com/html/2025/0101/6031125141011020.shtm

[65] 《土壤固化技术》课件.ppt - 人人文库 https://m.renrendoc.com/paper/409808313.html

[66] ISO 14688-2:2004 - Geotechnical investigation and testing — Identification and classification of soil — Part 2: Principles for a classification https://www.iso.org/standard/34082.html

[67] DIN EN ISO 14688-2, Ausgabe 2020-11 https://www.baunormenlexikon.de/norm/din-en-iso-14688-2/86ed63c9-c61f-4338-84d8-63ebcf566831

[68] 淤泥土固化加固与处置技术规程-20250311124545.pdf-原创力文档 https://m.book118.com/html/2025/0311/8070034116007041.shtm

[69] 深度解析流态固化土的核心竞争力和未来风向_低碳环保朋友圈 http://m.toutiao.com/group/7516401503138284073/?upstream_biz=doubao

[70] 2025年《固化土道路应用技术规程》条文说明 .pdf-原创力文档 https://m.book118.com/html/2025/0309/7023055020010045.shtm

[71] 无损可控土体固化技术:有效解决99%的地坪下沉难题|地坪下沉|地基|密实度|注浆|荷载_手机网易网 http://m.163.com/dy/article/K0QG6BKP05386Z5K.html

[72] DB33T 2383-2021 公路工程强力搅拌就地固化设计与施工技术规范-20250111.docx - 人人文库 https://www.renrendoc.com/paper/379490419.html

[73] HJ 1282-2023 污染土壤修复工程技术规范 固化/稳定化 标准全文 https://m.antpedia.com/standard/1120412452-1.html

[74] 《岩土固化剂应用技术规程》.pdf - 人人文库 https://m.renrendoc.com/paper/382027236.html

[75] DIN ISO 14688:1997-01 | Normas AENOR https://tienda.aenor.com/norma-din-iso-14688-1997-01-2890061

[76] DIN EN ISO 14688-2:2020-11 | Normas AENOR https://tienda.aenor.com/norma-din-en-iso-14688-2-2020-11-327201496

[77] 土体注浆加固:提升软土固化效果与土体改良的新策略_土壤无检测仪器 - 仪器信息网 https://m.instrument.com.cn/application/Solution-959477.html

[78] 一种增强土地力学性能的固化剂、制备方法及其应用 https://www.xjishu.com/zhuanli/28/202510425627.html

[79] 公路工程强力搅拌就地固化设计与施工技术规范(pdf) http://www.huaxiajianyan.com/ueditor/php/upload/file/20220412/1649748781685806.pdf

[80] 岛礁工程MICP 加固技术研究进展(pdf) https://cje.ustb.edu.cn/cn/article/pdf/preview/10.13374/j.issn2095-9389.2022.06.14.001.pdf

[81] 固化土规范 https://m.007swz.com/xinxi/cltwkmh.html

[82] 无损土体固化技术:破解地基沉降难题的创新密码_建筑_地质_宏业 https://m.sohu.com/a/893948745_120085008/

[83] 固化盐碱土整体铺筑标准-分析测试百科网 https://www.antpedia.com/standard/standard.php?keyword=%E5%9B%BA%E5%8C%96%E7%9B%90%E7%A2%B1%E5%9C%9F%E6%95%B4%E4%BD%93%E9%93%BA%E7%AD%91&start=120

[84] ISO 14688-1:2002 - Geotechnical investigation and testing — Identification and classification of soil — Part 1: Identification and description https://www.iso.org/standard/25260.html

[85] DIN EN ISO 14688-1 - 2020-11 - DIN Media https://www.dinmedia.de/de/norm/din-en-iso-14688-1/327201049

[86] DBJT 13-323-2019 土壤固化剂应用技术规程-20250110.docx - 人人文库 https://www.renrendoc.com/paper/379272833.html

[87] ISO 14688-1:2017 - Geotechnical investigation and testing — Identification and classification of soil — Part 1: Identification and description https://www.iso.org/standard/66345.html

[88] ISO 14688-2:2017 - Geotechnical investigation and testing — Identification and classification of soil — Part 2: Principles for a classification https://www.iso.org/standard/66346.html

[89] UNE-EN ISO 14688-2:2019 Investigación y ensayos geotécnicos. I... https://www.une.org/encuentra-tu-norma/busca-tu-norma/norma/?c=N0062181

[90] ISO 14688-1:2002/Amd 1:2013 | Normas AENOR https://tienda.aenor.com/norma-iso-14688-1-2002-amd-1-2013-057690

[91] UNI EN ISO 14688-1:2018 - UNI Ente Italiano di Normazione https://store.uni.com/uni-en-iso-14688-1-2018

[92] DIN EN ISO 14688-1:2020-11 | Normas AENOR https://tienda.aenor.com/norma-din-en-iso-14688-1-2020-11-327201049

[93] UNE-EN ISO 14688-1:2019 | Normas AENOR https://tienda.aenor.com/norma-une-en-iso-14688-1-2019-n0062180

[94] ISO 14687:2025 - Hydrogen fuel quality — Product specification https://www.iso.org/standard/82660.html

[95] DIN EN ISO 14688-1 - 2020-11 - Beuth.de https://www.beuth.de/de/norm/din-en-iso-14688-1/327201049

[96] UNE-EN ISO 14688-1:2003 | Normas AENOR https://tienda.aenor.com/norma-une-en-iso-14688-1-2003-n0028522

[97] BS ISO 14687:2025 Hydrogen fuel quality. Product specification https://www.en-standard.eu/bs-iso-14687-2025-hydrogen-fuel-quality-product-specification/

[98] UNE-EN ISO 14688-2:2006 Ingeniería geotécnica. Identificación ... https://www.une.org/encuentra-tu-norma/busca-tu-norma/norma/?c=norma-une-en-iso-14688-2-2006-n0036128

[99] UNE-EN ISO 14688-1:2019 Investigación y ensayos geotécnicos. I... https://www.une.org/encuentra-tu-norma/busca-tu-norma/norma/?c=N0062180

[100] DIN EN ISO 14688-1, Ausgabe 2020-11 https://www.baunormenlexikon.de/norm/din-en-iso-14688-1/b88a6b07-b01c-4cd3-8d4a-2e90e5c7d9e4

[101] UNE-EN ISO 14688-2:2006 | Normas AENOR https://tienda.aenor.com/norma-une-en-iso-14688-2-2006-n0036128

[102] ISO 14688-1:2002 | Normas AENOR https://tienda.aenor.com/norma-iso-iec-25022-2016-25260