Underground Drainage Pipe Network Intelligent Operation and Management System: A Comprehensive Technical Manual for Engineers

1. Introduction

1.1 Background and Significance

The underground drainage pipe network forms the vital lifeline of modern cities, silently ensuring the smooth flow of wastewater and stormwater while maintaining urban hygiene and preventing flooding. However, traditional drainage management systems face numerous challenges, including aging infrastructure, inefficient maintenance, lack of real-time monitoring, and difficulty in making informed decisions (10). These limitations become even more pronounced as cities expand, populations grow, and extreme weather events become more frequent due to climate change.

The development of intelligent operation and management systems for underground drainage networks represents a transformative shift in urban water management. By integrating advanced technologies such as IoT sensors, big data analytics, artificial intelligence, and geographic information systems (GIS), these systems enable comprehensive monitoring, intelligent analysis, and optimized control of drainage networks (2). This technical manual aims to provide engineers with a detailed understanding of these systems, their components, operational processes, and implementation strategies.

1.2 System Definition and Scope

An Underground Drainage Pipe Network Intelligent Operation and Management System can be defined as an integrated technological solution that employs modern sensing, communication, data processing, and control technologies to enhance the monitoring, operation, maintenance, and decision-making processes related to urban drainage systems (3). The system typically includes:

• Sensor networksfor real-time data collection
• Communication infrastructurefor data transmission
• Data processing and storage systems
• Intelligent analysis and decision support tools
• User interfacesfor system interaction

This manual focuses on systems designed for municipal-scale drainage networks, including both sanitary sewers and stormwater systems. While many principles apply to various types of drainage systems, specific examples and technical details will emphasize combined sewer systems unless otherwise noted.

1.3 Objectives and Benefits

The primary objectives of implementing an intelligent drainage network management system include:

1. Enhanced Monitoring: Achieve comprehensive and real-time monitoring of drainage system conditions
2. Improved Decision-making: Provide accurate and timely information to support operational decisions
3. Optimized Resource Utilization: Maximize the efficiency of drainage infrastructure through intelligent control
4. Reduced Risks: Minimize the occurrence of sewer overflows, flooding, and environmental pollution
5. Cost Savings: Reduce operational costs through predictive maintenance and optimized resource allocation (13)

The benefits of such systems are substantial and have been demonstrated in numerous implementations worldwide. For example, the Louisville and Jefferson County Metropolitan Sewer District in Kentucky reduced combined sewer overflows by 1 billion gallons annually and saved approximately 117 million from the original long-term control plan estimate of 200 million (a 58 percent reduction in capital investment) (10). Similarly, the city of South Bend, Indiana, has prevented at least 1 billion gallons of raw sewage from entering the St. Joseph River each year since implementing its smart sewer system (13).

2. System Architecture and Core Components

2.1 Three-tier System Architecture

Intelligent drainage network management systems typically adopt a three-tier architecture comprising the Perception Layer, Network Layer, and Application Layer (3). This architecture provides a structured approach to system design and implementation, ensuring scalability, maintainability, and adaptability to future technological advancements.

2.1.1 Perception Layer

The Perception Layer forms the foundation of the intelligent drainage system, responsible for data collection from various points throughout the drainage network. This layer primarily consists of:

• Sensors: Various types of sensors are deployed at strategic points within the drainage system to collect real-time data. Common sensor types include:
  • Water level sensors: Measure the depth of water in pipes and manholes
  • Flow meters: Determine the volume of water flowing through pipes
  • Pressure sensors: Monitor pressure changes, which can indicate blockages or 异常 conditions
  • 水质 sensors: Measure parameters such as pH, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, and nutrient levels
  • Gas sensors: Detect hazardous gases such as hydrogen sulfide and methane
  • Rain gauges: Provide precipitation data for stormwater management (13)
• Data Acquisition Units (DAUs): These devices collect data from multiple sensors, perform preliminary processing, and prepare the data for transmission to the central system (3)
• Inspection Equipment: Specialized equipment for periodic inspections of the interior of pipes and structures, including:
  • Closed-circuit television (CCTV) systems: For visual inspection of pipe interiors
  • 声呐 systems: For detecting blockages and measuring sediment levels
  • Pipe inspection robots: For detailed examination of hard-to-reach areas (9)

Sensor deployment strategies vary depending on specific site conditions and system objectives. In general, sensors should be placed at critical locations such as:

• Major confluence points in the sewer network
• Locations prone to flooding or blockages
• Upstream and downstream of wastewater treatment plants
• Near sensitive environmental receptors
• At combined sewer overflows (CSOs) (12)

2.1.2 Network Layer

The Network Layer is responsible for transmitting data collected by the Perception Layer to the central processing system and delivering control commands back to field devices. This layer includes:

• Communication Protocols: Various communication protocols are used to transmit data, including:
  • Wired communication: Fiber optic cables, Ethernet, and power line communication
  • Wireless communication: Cellular (4G/5G), Wi-Fi, LoRa, NB-IoT, and satellite communication
  • Hybrid systems: Combining both wired and wireless communication methods for redundancy and reliability (3)
• Data Transmission Equipment: This includes modems, routers, gateways, and other networking devices necessary to establish communication between field devices and the central system.
• Edge Computing Nodes: Increasingly, intelligent drainage systems are incorporating edge computing capabilities at the network layer. These nodes perform preliminary data processing close to the source, reducing the volume of data that needs to be transmitted and enabling faster response times for critical events (17).

The choice of communication technology depends on several factors including:

• Distance between sensors and the central system
• Required data transfer rate
• Power constraints for battery-operated sensors
• Environmental conditions
• System budget
• Security requirements (12)

2.1.3 Application Layer

The Application Layer represents the interface between the system and its users, providing data visualization, analysis tools, and control capabilities. This layer includes:

• Central Data Processing System: This is the core of the intelligent drainage system, where raw data from the field is processed, analyzed, and stored. The system typically includes:
  • Server infrastructure: Physical or virtual servers for data processing and storage
  • Database management system: For storing and retrieving historical and real-time data
  • Application software: The core software that provides the system's functionality (3)
• User Interfaces: These provide access to system functions for different types of users, including:
  • Web-based interfaces: Accessible through standard web browsers for desktop and laptop computers
  • Mobile applications: For on-site inspections and field operations
  • Dashboards: Visual displays of key performance indicators and real-time system status (15)
• Data Visualization Tools: These tools transform raw data into meaningful visual representations, including:
  • GIS mapping: Displaying system components and data in geographic context
  • Graphs and charts: For analyzing trends and patterns in data
  • 3D modeling: Providing realistic representations of the drainage system (12)

2.2 System Functions and Features

Intelligent drainage network management systems typically provide a comprehensive set of functions designed to support all aspects of drainage system operation and management. These functions can be categorized into several key areas:

2.2.1 Real-time Monitoring

The real-time monitoring function enables continuous observation of the drainage system's operational status through data collected by sensors and other monitoring devices. Key capabilities include:

• Multi-parameter monitoring: Simultaneous monitoring of water level, flow rate, 水质，pressure, and other relevant parameters at multiple points throughout the network (13)
• Real-time data display: Instantaneous visualization of collected data through graphical interfaces and dashboards
• Device status monitoring: Continuous monitoring of the operational status of sensors, data loggers, and other field devices
• Data validation and quality control: Ensuring the accuracy and reliability of collected data through various validation techniques (2)

2.2.2 Data Management and Analysis

Effective data management is essential for the successful operation of an intelligent drainage system. Key data management and analysis functions include:

• Data storage and retrieval: Secure storage of historical data with efficient retrieval capabilities
• Data analysis and mining: Application of statistical and machine learning techniques to identify patterns, trends, and anomalies in the data
• Data visualization: Transformation of raw data into understandable visual formats such as charts, graphs, and maps
• Report generation: Automatic generation of various reports for operational, maintenance, and regulatory purposes (12)

Advanced systems often incorporate predictive analytics to forecast future conditions based on historical data and current trends. For example, these systems can predict flow rates during upcoming storms or forecast equipment failures before they occur (17).

2.2.3 Alarm and Early Warning

Timely detection and notification of 异常 conditions are critical for effective drainage system management. Key alarm and early warning functions include:

• Threshold-based alarms: Automatic generation of alarms when measured parameters exceed pre-set thresholds
• Anomaly detection: Identification of unusual patterns or trends in data that may indicate 潜在 problems
• Alarm prioritization: Categorization of alarms based on severity and urgency to facilitate appropriate responses
• Multi-channel notification: Delivery of alarms through multiple channels including email, SMS, and in-app notifications
• Escalation procedures: Automatic escalation of unresolved alarms to appropriate personnel based on pre-defined rules (15)

2.2.4 Intelligent Control and Optimization

Intelligent drainage systems can actively control various components of the drainage system to optimize performance and respond to changing conditions. Key control and optimization functions include:

• Automatic control of pumps and valves: Adjustment of pump speeds and valve positions based on real-time data
• Real-time optimization: Dynamic adjustment of system operations to achieve optimal performance based on current conditions
• Scenario simulation: Evaluation of different operational scenarios to identify the most effective response to anticipated conditions
• Predictive control: Anticipatory control based on forecasted conditions such as upcoming storms
• Coordinated control: Integration and coordination of multiple system components for optimal overall performance (17)

2.2.5 Maintenance Management

Effective maintenance management is essential for ensuring the continued reliable operation of drainage systems. Key maintenance management functions include:

• Preventive maintenance scheduling: Development of maintenance schedules based on equipment usage and performance data
• Corrective maintenance tracking: Management of maintenance activities in response to detected problems
• Resource allocation: Optimization of maintenance resources including personnel, equipment, and materials
• Work order management: Creation, assignment, and tracking of maintenance work orders
• Inventory management: Tracking and management of spare parts and supplies
• Performance evaluation: Assessment of maintenance effectiveness and identification of opportunities for improvement (30)

2.2.6 Emergency Response

Intelligent drainage systems play a crucial role in supporting effective emergency response to flooding and other drainage-related emergencies. Key emergency response functions include:

• Emergency scenario planning: Development of pre-defined response plans for various emergency situations
• Real-time emergency monitoring: Continuous monitoring of conditions during emergencies
• Emergency resource coordination: Coordination of personnel, equipment, and materials during emergencies
• Impact assessment: Rapid assessment of potential impacts from flooding or other drainage-related incidents
• Public communication: Provision of timely information to the public regarding potential risks and response measures (15)

3. System Implementation Process

3.1 Requirements Analysis and Planning

Successful implementation of an intelligent drainage network management system begins with thorough requirements analysis and planning. This phase involves several key steps:

3.1.1 Current State Assessment

Before designing a new system, it is essential to conduct a comprehensive assessment of the existing drainage system and its management practices. This assessment should include:

• Inventory of existing infrastructure: Development of a detailed inventory of all drainage system components including pipes, manholes, pumps, valves, and treatment facilities
• Assessment of current performance: Evaluation of existing system performance against established standards and objectives
• Review of existing data: Analysis of available historical data to identify patterns, trends, and problem areas
• Assessment of current management practices: Evaluation of existing operational and maintenance procedures and their effectiveness
• Stakeholder consultation: Engagement with all relevant stakeholders to identify needs, concerns, and expectations (12)

3.1.2 System Requirements Definition

Based on the current state assessment, the next step is to define the specific requirements for the intelligent drainage system. This involves:

• Functional requirements: Identification of specific functions the system must perform, such as real-time monitoring, data analysis, and alarm generation
• Performance requirements: Specification of performance metrics such as response time, data accuracy, and system availability
• Interface requirements: Definition of interfaces with existing systems, personnel, and external stakeholders
• Scalability requirements: Consideration of future growth and expansion needs
• Security requirements: Specification of security measures to protect the system and its data
• Regulatory requirements: Identification of relevant regulations and standards that the system must comply with (12)

3.1.3 System Design Planning

With requirements defined, the next step is to develop a detailed system design plan. This plan should include:

• Architectural design: Development of a high-level system architecture including hardware, software, and communication components
• Technology selection: Evaluation and selection of appropriate technologies for data collection, transmission, processing, and display
• Sensor deployment strategy: Development of a plan for sensor placement based on identified monitoring needs
• Data management plan: Development of strategies for data collection, storage, analysis, and dissemination
• Implementation timeline: Development of a detailed timeline for system implementation, including milestones and deliverables
• Budget estimation: Development of a comprehensive budget including costs for hardware, software, installation, training, and ongoing maintenance (12)

3.2 Hardware and Software Selection

The selection of appropriate hardware and software is critical to the success of an intelligent drainage system. This section provides guidance on key considerations for selecting various system components.

3.2.1 Sensor Selection Criteria

Selecting the right sensors for your drainage system requires careful consideration of several factors:

• Measurement parameters: The specific parameters to be measured (e.g., water level, flow rate, 水质) will dictate the type of sensor required
• Environmental conditions: Sensors must be capable of operating reliably in the specific environmental conditions of the drainage system, including temperature, humidity, and exposure to corrosive substances
• Accuracy and precision: The required level of measurement accuracy and precision will influence sensor selection
• Range: The expected range of values for the parameter being measured must be compatible with the sensor's measurement range
• Response time: The speed at which the sensor can detect and report changes in the measured parameter
• Power requirements: Consideration of available power sources and the sensor's power consumption
• Communication interface: Compatibility with the selected data transmission system
• Durability and reliability: The sensor must be capable of withstanding the harsh conditions typically found in drainage systems
• Cost: The total cost of the sensor, including purchase, installation, and maintenance (12)

3.2.2 Communication System Selection

The communication system is responsible for transmitting data from field devices to the central system and delivering control commands back to field devices. Key considerations for selecting a communication system include:

• Distance: The maximum distance between field devices and the central system
• Bandwidth requirements: The amount of data that needs to be transmitted and the required transmission rate
• Latency requirements: The acceptable delay between data collection and its availability at the central system
• Reliability: The need for continuous, uninterrupted communication
• Redundancy: The requirement for backup communication paths in case of primary system failure
• Security: The need to protect data during transmission
• Cost: The total cost of the communication system including equipment, installation, and ongoing service fees
• Scalability: The ability to accommodate future expansion of the system (12)

3.2.3 Data Management System Selection

The data management system forms the core of the intelligent drainage system, responsible for processing, storing, analyzing, and presenting data. Key considerations for selecting a data management system include:

• Data processing capabilities: The system must be capable of handling the volume, variety, and velocity of data generated by the sensor network
• Data storage capacity: The system must have sufficient storage capacity for both historical and real-time data
• Analysis capabilities: The system should provide robust analytical tools for data analysis and interpretation
• Visualization capabilities: The system should offer comprehensive data visualization tools including maps, charts, and graphs
• User interface: The system should feature an intuitive, user-friendly interface that meets the needs of different user groups
• Integration capabilities: The ability to integrate with other systems such as GIS, SCADA, and enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems
• Security: Robust security measures to protect sensitive data
• Scalability: The ability to handle increasing data volumes and additional users as the system expands
• Cost: The total cost of the system including software licenses, hardware, installation, training, and ongoing maintenance (12)

3.2.4 Software Application Selection

The software applications that run on the data management system provide the functionality that makes the intelligent drainage system valuable. Key considerations for selecting software applications include:

• Functionality: The application must provide all necessary functions including data monitoring, analysis, alarming, control, and reporting
• Usability: The application should be intuitive and easy to use, with a well-designed user interface
• Customization: The ability to customize the application to meet specific organizational needs
• Integration: The application should be capable of integrating with other software systems used by the organization
• Security: The application should include appropriate security measures to protect against unauthorized access and data breaches
• Performance: The application should perform efficiently even when handling large volumes of data
• Support and maintenance: The availability of technical support and ongoing maintenance for the application
• Cost: The total cost of the application including licensing, implementation, training, and ongoing support (12)

3.3 System Integration and Testing

Once hardware and software components have been selected, the next step is system integration and testing. This phase ensures that all components work together seamlessly and that the system meets the defined requirements.

3.3.1 Hardware Integration

Hardware integration involves connecting and configuring all hardware components to work together as a cohesive system. Key steps in hardware integration include:

• Sensor installation: Proper installation of sensors at designated locations throughout the drainage network
• Data acquisition unit setup: Configuration of data acquisition units to collect data from sensors and prepare it for transmission
• Communication system setup: Installation and configuration of communication equipment to establish connections between field devices and the central system
• Server setup: Installation and configuration of server hardware and operating systems
• Network setup: Establishment of local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks (WANs) as needed
• Power system setup: Installation of power supplies for field devices, ensuring adequate power even during outages
• Environmental protection: Implementation of appropriate measures to protect hardware components from environmental conditions (12)

3.3.2 Software Integration

Software integration involves combining various software components into a unified system that provides the required functionality. Key steps in software integration include:

• Operating system installation: Installation and configuration of operating systems on servers and workstations
• Database setup: Creation and configuration of databases for storing system data
• Application software installation: Installation and initial configuration of application software
• Development of custom interfaces: Creation of custom interfaces where necessary to integrate different software components
• Configuration of data processing workflows: Setup of workflows for data collection, processing, analysis, and presentation
• Integration with existing systems: Establishment of connections with other systems such as GIS, SCADA, or ERP systems
• Development of user interfaces: Creation or customization of user interfaces to meet specific organizational needs (12)

3.3.3 System Testing

Thorough testing is essential to ensure that the integrated system functions as expected. System testing should include several types of testing:

• Unit testing: Testing individual components in isolation to ensure they function correctly
• Integration testing: Testing the interaction between different components to ensure they work together seamlessly
• System testing: Testing the entire system as a whole to ensure it meets all functional and performance requirements
• Acceptance testing: Testing conducted by the end-users to confirm that the system meets their needs and expectations
• Load testing: Testing the system's performance under expected and peak load conditions
• Security testing: Testing the system's security measures to identify vulnerabilities
• Disaster recovery testing: Testing procedures for recovering system functionality in the event of a disaster or system failure (12)

3.4 System Deployment and Training

After successful testing, the system is ready for deployment and user training. This phase ensures that the system is properly installed and that users are equipped to operate it effectively.

3.4.1 System Deployment

System deployment involves the final installation and configuration of the system in the operational environment. Key steps in system deployment include:

• Final hardware installation: Completion of all hardware installations at field sites and the central control center
• Final software configuration: Completion of software configuration based on testing results
• System calibration: Calibration of sensors and other measurement devices to ensure accurate data collection
• Integration with existing systems: Finalization of connections with other organizational systems
• Data migration: Transfer of relevant historical data from existing systems to the new system
• System documentation: Preparation of comprehensive system documentation including user manuals, technical specifications, and maintenance procedures
• Go-live planning: Development of a detailed plan for transitioning from the old system to the new system (12)

3.4.2 User Training

Proper training is essential to ensure that system users can operate the new system effectively. Training should be tailored to different user groups based on their roles and responsibilities. Key considerations for user training include:

• Training needs assessment: Identification of specific training needs for different user groups
• Development of training materials: Creation of comprehensive training materials including user guides, tutorials, and training manuals
• Delivery of training sessions: Conduct of training sessions for all relevant personnel, including system administrators, operators, maintenance staff, and managers
• Hands-on practice: Provision of opportunities for hands-on practice with the system in a controlled environment
• Assessment of training effectiveness: Evaluation of training effectiveness through quizzes, practical exercises, and feedback sessions
• Ongoing support: Provision of ongoing support and refresher training as needed
• User certification: Development and implementation of a certification process for users who achieve a specified level of proficiency (12)

4. International Case Studies

4.1 Louisville and Jefferson County Smart Sewer System (USA)

4.1.1 Project Background and Objectives

The Louisville and Jefferson County Metropolitan Sewer District (MSD) faced significant challenges with its combined sewer system, which frequently experienced overflows during heavy rains, discharging untreated sewage into local waterways. To address this issue, MSD implemented a system-wide smart sewer system as part of its long-term control plan for combined sewer overflows (CSOs) (10). The primary objective of the project was to reduce CSOs by optimizing the use of existing infrastructure through real-time controls and smart management strategies.

4.1.2 System Architecture and Implementation

The Louisville smart sewer system employs a comprehensive architecture that includes:

• Sensor Network: Deployment of over 1,000 sensors throughout the sewer system to monitor water levels, flows, and other parameters in real-time
• Real-Time Control System: Implementation of a sophisticated real-time control (RTC) system that uses sensor data to optimize wastewater conveyance, storage, release, and transfer based on available system capacity
• Centralized Monitoring and Control Center: Establishment of a state-of-the-art control center where operators can monitor system conditions and make informed decisions
• Data Management System: Development of a comprehensive data management system for storing, analyzing, and visualizing sensor data and system performance metrics (10)

The implementation process involved several key phases:

1. Assessment and Planning: Detailed assessment of the existing system and development of a comprehensive implementation plan
2. Sensor Deployment: Strategic placement of sensors at critical points throughout the sewer system
3. Control System Development: Design and implementation of the real-time control algorithms and software
4. Integration with Existing Infrastructure: Integration of the new system with existing pumps, valves, and other infrastructure components
5. Operator Training: Extensive training for system operators to ensure effective use of the new system (10)

4.1.3 Operational Processes and Workflows

The Louisville smart sewer system operates through a series of defined processes and workflows:

1. Data Collection: Sensors continuously collect data on water levels, flows, and other parameters at over 1,000 points throughout the system
2. Data Transmission: Collected data is transmitted in real-time to the central control system via a secure communication network
3. Data Analysis: The central system processes and analyzes the data to assess current system conditions and predict future conditions
4. Control Decisions: Based on the analyzed data, the real-time control system automatically adjusts the operation of pumps, valves, and other devices to optimize system performance
5. Operator Oversight: System operators monitor the system through a comprehensive dashboard and can intervene if necessary to adjust control strategies
6. Performance Monitoring: The system continuously monitors its own performance and generates reports on CSO reduction and other key metrics (10)

4.1.4 Project Outcomes and Benefits

The Louisville smart sewer system has achieved remarkable results since its implementation:

• Significant Reduction in CSOs: The system has reduced combined sewer overflows by 1 billion gallons annually, representing a substantial improvement in water quality
• Substantial Cost Savings: The smart sewer approach saved approximately 117 million from the original long-term control plan estimate of 200 million, representing a 58 percent reduction in capital investment
• Improved System Efficiency: The real-time control system has optimized the use of existing infrastructure, increasing its capacity and efficiency
• Enhanced Decision-Making: The system provides operators with real-time data and analytical tools, enabling more informed and effective decision-making
• Improved Environmental Protection: The reduction in CSOs has led to improved water quality in local streams and rivers (10)

4.2 Munich Drainage Master Plan (Germany)

4.2.1 Project Background and Objectives

The municipal drainage system of Munich (MSE) faced challenges related to aging infrastructure, increasing urbanization, and the need to optimize water protection and drainage comfort. To address these issues, MSE embarked on the development of a new drainage master plan (GEP) for the entire city (2). The primary objectives of the project were to create a sustainable drainage system that ensures reliable operation, protects water quality, and enhances urban quality of life.

4.2.2 System Architecture and Implementation

The Munich drainage master plan employs a comprehensive approach that includes:

• Hydrodynamic Modeling: Development of a detailed hydrodynamic model of the entire sewer network to simulate flow conditions under various scenarios
• Pollution Load Calculation: Implementation of a hydrodynamic pollution load calculation to assess the impact of wastewater discharges on receiving waters
• Integrated Planning Approach: Adoption of an integrated approach that considers all aspects of the water cycle, including stormwater management, wastewater treatment, and groundwater protection
• Stakeholder Engagement: Extensive engagement with various stakeholders, including residents, businesses, and government agencies, to ensure their needs and concerns were considered in the planning process (2)

The implementation process involved several key phases:

1. Data Collection and Analysis: Comprehensive inventory and assessment of the existing drainage system, including detailed surveys of pipe conditions and flow characteristics
2. Model Development: Creation of detailed hydrodynamic models of the sewer network and receiving waters
3. Scenario Development: Development of various future scenarios to assess the potential impacts of climate change, urban development, and other factors
4. Alternative Evaluation: Assessment of various alternative solutions to identify the most effective and cost-efficient approaches
5. Master Plan Development: Integration of findings into a comprehensive master plan that provides a roadmap for future drainage system improvements
6. Implementation Planning: Development of detailed implementation plans and timelines for priority projects (2)

4.2.3 Operational Processes and Workflows

The Munich drainage master plan incorporates several key operational processes and workflows:

1. Data Collection and Monitoring: Continuous monitoring of rainfall, water levels, flows, and 水质 at strategic locations throughout the city
2. Model-Based Simulation: Regular use of hydrodynamic models to simulate system performance under current and future conditions
3. Scenario Planning: Development and evaluation of various scenarios to inform decision-making about system upgrades and modifications
4. Integrated Decision-Making: Consideration of multiple factors, including hydraulic performance, environmental impacts, social equity, and cost-effectiveness, in all decision-making
5. Stakeholder Engagement: Regular communication and consultation with stakeholders to ensure their input is considered in system operations and improvements
6. Performance Monitoring: Continuous assessment of system performance against established targets and objectives (2)

4.2.4 Project Outcomes and Benefits

The Munich drainage master plan has delivered several significant benefits:

• Comprehensive Planning Framework: The master plan provides a clear and comprehensive framework for the future development of Munich's drainage system
• Enhanced System Resilience: The planning approach has identified strategies to enhance the system's resilience to climate change and other future challenges
• Improved Water Quality: The plan includes measures to reduce pollution loads in receiving waters, improving overall water quality
• Optimized Investment: By identifying the most cost-effective solutions, the plan helps ensure that limited resources are used efficiently
• Increased Public Confidence: The extensive stakeholder engagement process has increased public understanding and confidence in the city's drainage system management (2)

4.3 South Bend Smart Sewer System (USA)

4.3.1 Project Background and Objectives

The city of South Bend, Indiana faced challenges with its aging combined sewer system, which frequently experienced overflows during heavy rains, discharging untreated sewage into the St. Joseph River. To address this issue, the city implemented a smart sewer system that uses advanced technology to monitor and regulate wastewater levels (13). The primary objective of the project was to reduce combined sewer overflows and improve water quality while minimizing capital investment costs.

4.3.2 System Architecture and Implementation

The South Bend smart sewer system employs a comprehensive architecture that includes:

• Sensor Network: Installation of a network of depth sensors, flow sensors, and smart valves throughout the sewer system
• Data Management System: Development of a sophisticated data management system for collecting, storing, and analyzing sensor data
• Real-Time Monitoring and Control System: Implementation of a system that allows engineers to monitor conditions in real-time and make adjustments as needed
• Predictive Analytics: Integration of predictive analytics to anticipate system conditions based on historical data and weather forecasts (13)

The implementation process involved several key phases:

1. Feasibility Study: Assessment of the technical and economic feasibility of implementing a smart sewer system
2. Sensor Deployment: Strategic placement of sensors at critical points throughout the sewer system
3. Data Management System Development: Design and implementation of a system for managing and analyzing sensor data
4. Control System Integration: Integration of the new system with existing pumps, valves, and other infrastructure components
5. Operator Training: Training of city engineers and operators on how to use the new system effectively (13)

4.3.3 Operational Processes and Workflows

The South Bend smart sewer system operates through a series of defined processes and workflows:

1. Data Collection: Sensors continuously monitor water levels and flows throughout the sewer system and transmit data to the central system
2. Data Analysis: The central system analyzes the data to identify potential problems and predict future conditions
3. Decision-Making: Based on the analyzed data, the system automatically adjusts the operation of smart valves to redirect wastewater from trunk lines approaching capacity to less stressed lines
4. Real-Time Monitoring: City engineers monitor system conditions in real-time through a web-based interface
5. Maintenance Planning: The system helps identify blockages and other issues that need maintenance attention
6. Performance Evaluation: The system tracks performance metrics, such as the amount of sewage prevented from entering the river, to evaluate effectiveness (13)

4.3.4 Project Outcomes and Benefits

The South Bend smart sewer system has achieved significant results since its implementation:

• Reduced Pollution: The system has prevented at least 1 billion gallons of raw sewage from entering the St. Joseph River each year
• Substantial Cost Savings: By using smart technologies to optimize the use of existing infrastructure, the city saved an estimated $500 million compared to the original long-term control plan
• Improved System Visibility: City engineers now have real-time visibility into system conditions, allowing for more proactive management
• Enhanced Maintenance Efficiency: The system helps identify blockages and other issues more quickly, improving maintenance efficiency
• Flood Reduction: The technology allows engineers to divert combined sewage and stormwater to less full areas of the underground system, reducing the potential for street-level flooding (13)

5. Technology Comparison and Analysis

5.1 Sensor Technologies for Drainage Monitoring

The choice of sensor technology is critical to the performance of an intelligent drainage system. This section compares different types of sensors commonly used in drainage monitoring applications.

5.1.1 Pressure Sensors vs. Ultrasonic Sensors for Water Level Measurement

Pressure sensors and ultrasonic sensors are two of the most commonly used technologies for measuring water levels in drainage systems. Here's a comparison of their characteristics and performance:

 

Characteristic	Pressure Sensors	Ultrasonic Sensors
Measurement Principle	Measures hydrostatic pressure exerted by the water column	Emits ultrasonic waves and measures the time for the echo to return
Accuracy	High accuracy under stable conditions, typically within 0.1% of full scale	Generally slightly less accurate than pressure sensors, typically within 0.5% of full scale
Range	Typically suitable for measuring water depths from a few centimeters to several meters	Can measure water depths from a few centimeters up to about 10 meters, depending on the model
Response Time	Fast response time, typically less than 1 second	Slightly slower response time compared to pressure sensors
Environmental Sensitivity	Less affected by turbulence, bubbles, or surface debris	Performance can be affected by turbulence, bubbles, condensation on the transducer, or floating debris
Installation Requirements	Requires direct contact with water, typically installed at the bottom of the pipe or manhole	Installed above the water surface, typically on the lid of a manhole or above the pipe
Maintenance Needs	Generally requires less maintenance unless exposed to corrosive substances or debris	May require periodic cleaning of the transducer to ensure accurate readings
Cost	Generally less expensive than ultrasonic sensors	Generally more expensive than pressure sensors
Suitability for Different Applications	Well-suited for permanent installations in pipes and manholes where water is relatively calm	Well-suited for applications where direct contact with water is not possible or desirable (12)

5.1.2 Electromagnetic Flow Meters vs. Doppler Flow Meters

Flow measurement is another critical aspect of drainage system monitoring. Here's a comparison of two common types of flow meters:

 

Characteristic	Electromagnetic Flow Meters	Doppler Flow Meters
Measurement Principle	Uses Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction; generates a magnetic field and measures the voltage induced by flowing conductive liquid	Emits ultrasonic waves and measures the frequency shift caused by particles or bubbles moving with the flow
Accuracy	High accuracy, typically within 0.5-1% of reading	Lower accuracy than electromagnetic meters, typically within 2-5% of reading
Flow Range	Wide dynamic range, suitable for measuring both low and high flow rates	More limited dynamic range; performance degrades at low flow velocities
Fluid Requirements	Requires the fluid to be electrically conductive, which is generally true for wastewater	Requires the presence of particles or bubbles in the flow to reflect the ultrasonic waves
Installation Requirements	Requires a straight pipe section upstream and downstream to ensure uniform flow profile	Less sensitive to flow profile, but still benefits from some straight pipe sections
Maintenance Needs	Generally requires less maintenance, but may need periodic calibration	May require more frequent maintenance to clean transducers and ensure proper functioning
Cost	Generally more expensive than Doppler meters	Generally less expensive than electromagnetic meters
Suitability for Different Applications	Well-suited for measuring flows in clean or slightly dirty conductive liquids	Well-suited for measuring flows in wastewater containing suspended solids or bubbles (12)

5.1.3 Multi-parameter 水质 Sensors

In addition to water level and flow, 水质 monitoring is increasingly important for intelligent drainage systems. Multi-parameter 水质 sensors offer several advantages over single-parameter sensors:

• Cost-effectiveness: One sensor can measure multiple parameters (e.g., pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, turbidity, temperature) at a lower total cost than multiple single-parameter sensors
• Space efficiency: Requires less physical space than multiple individual sensors
• Data correlation: Allows for simultaneous measurement of multiple parameters, which can help identify relationships between different 水质指标
• Synchronization: Ensures that all measurements are taken at the same time and under the same conditions, improving data accuracy and reliability
• Simplified maintenance: Fewer sensors to install, calibrate, and maintain (12)

5.2 Communication Technologies for Drainage Systems

The communication system is a critical component of any intelligent drainage system, enabling data transfer between field devices and the central system. This section compares different communication technologies commonly used in this application.

5.2.1 Cellular Communication (4G/5G)

Cellular communication, particularly 4G and increasingly 5G, offers several advantages for drainage system applications:

• Wide coverage: Provides coverage over large geographic areas, making it suitable for monitoring dispersed drainage systems
• High data rates: Capable of transmitting large amounts of data quickly, which is beneficial for systems with many sensors or high-data-rate devices like cameras
• Reliability: Modern cellular networks are highly reliable, with redundancy built into the infrastructure
• Security: Advanced encryption and authentication mechanisms help protect data during transmission
• Scalability: Easily accommodate additional sensors as the system expands
• Cost: While there are ongoing service fees, the cost per device can be reasonable for systems with moderate numbers of sensors (12)

However, cellular communication also has some limitations:

• Power consumption: Cellular modems typically consume more power than other wireless technologies, which can be a concern for battery-powered sensors
• Latency: While improving with 5G, cellular communication still has higher latency compared to some other technologies
• Coverage limitations: May not provide reliable coverage in all areas, particularly underground or in remote locations
• Cost for large-scale systems: The cumulative cost of service fees can become significant for systems with hundreds or thousands of sensors (12)

5.2.2 LoRaWAN and NB-IoT for Low-Power Wide-Area Networks (LPWAN)

LoRaWAN (Long Range Wide Area Network) and NB-IoT (NarrowBand Internet of Things) are two leading technologies for LPWAN applications, offering several advantages for drainage monitoring:

• Low power consumption: Designed for battery-powered devices, allowing sensors to operate for years on a single battery
• Long range: Capable of transmitting data over several kilometers, reducing the need for numerous repeaters
• High capacity: Can support a large number of devices within a single network
• Deep penetration: Capable of penetrating buildings and underground structures better than some other wireless technologies
• Low cost: Lower device and operational costs compared to cellular for certain applications
• Suitability for low-data applications: Well-suited for applications like drainage monitoring where data transmission requirements are relatively modest (12)

However, these technologies also have some limitations:

• Lower data rates: Limited to relatively low data rates, which may not be suitable for applications requiring high-bandwidth data transmission
• Latency: Higher latency compared to some other technologies, which may be a concern for real-time control applications
• Coverage limitations: Coverage can vary depending on local terrain and infrastructure
• Standardization: Different LPWAN technologies are not always interoperable, which can limit flexibility (12)

5.2.3 Wired Communication Options

Despite the growing popularity of wireless technologies, wired communication still has a place in many drainage system applications:

• Reliability: Generally more reliable than wireless communication, with less susceptibility to interference or signal degradation
• Security: Lower risk of unauthorized access or data interception compared to wireless systems
• Higher data rates: Capable of supporting higher data rates than most wireless technologies
• Lower power consumption: Generally requires less power than wireless communication, which can be beneficial for powered devices
• Suitability for fixed installations: Well-suited for applications where devices are permanently installed and accessible for wiring (12)

However, wired communication also has several limitations:

• Installation cost and complexity: Higher installation costs and complexity, particularly for retrofitting existing systems
• Limited flexibility: Less flexible than wireless systems, making it more difficult to add or move devices
• Vulnerability to physical damage: Wires can be damaged by construction activities, vandalism, or environmental factors
• Suitability for remote or dispersed locations: Less practical for widely dispersed or remote sensors due to the need for continuous wiring (12)

5.3 Data Processing and Analytics Approaches

The effective processing and analysis of sensor data is a critical component of intelligent drainage systems. This section compares different approaches to data processing and analytics.

5.3.1 Traditional Statistical Methods vs. Machine Learning

Traditional statistical methods and machine learning represent two different approaches to data analysis in drainage systems:

Traditional Statistical Methods:

• Advantages:
  • Well-established theoretical foundations with clear interpretability
  • Require less data compared to machine learning methods
  • Faster computation for many applications
  • Easier to implement and understand for engineers familiar with traditional statistics
  • Provide clear measures of uncertainty and confidence
• Disadvantages:
  • May not capture complex non-linear relationships in the data
  • Less effective at identifying patterns in large, high-dimensional datasets
  • Limited ability to learn from new data and adapt to changing conditions
  • May require more manual feature engineering
  • Less suitable for real-time decision-making in dynamic systems (17)

Machine Learning Methods:

• Advantages:
  • Capable of capturing complex non-linear relationships in the data
  • Effective at identifying patterns in large, high-dimensional datasets
  • Can learn from new data and adapt to changing conditions
  • Automatically extract relevant features from raw data
  • Well-suited for real-time decision-making in dynamic systems
  • Can achieve higher accuracy than traditional methods for many complex tasks
• Disadvantages:
  • Require large amounts of high-quality training data
  • Higher computational requirements, especially during training
  • Less transparent and interpretable compared to traditional methods
  • More complex to implement and maintain
  • Require expertise in machine learning techniques (17)

5.3.2 Edge Computing vs. Cloud Computing

The choice between edge computing and cloud computing for data processing in drainage systems depends on several factors:

Edge Computing:

• Advantages:
  • Reduced latency for time-critical decisions
  • Reduced data transmission requirements and costs
  • Improved reliability in areas with limited or unreliable connectivity
  • Enhanced security through local data processing
  • Better suited for real-time control applications
  • Reduced load on central servers and networks
• Disadvantages:
  • Limited computational resources compared to cloud systems
  • More complex deployment and management across distributed devices
  • Difficulty in implementing complex models requiring significant computational power
  • Higher upfront costs for edge computing infrastructure
  • Limited scalability compared to cloud-based systems (17)

Cloud Computing:

• Advantages:
  • Access to virtually unlimited computational resources
  • Centralized data storage and management
  • Easier implementation of complex analytical models
  • Scalability to accommodate increasing data volumes and system size
  • Lower upfront costs for small to medium-sized systems
  • Centralized software updates and maintenance
• Disadvantages:
  • Higher latency for decision-making
  • Dependent on reliable connectivity between edge devices and the cloud
  • Higher ongoing costs for data storage and processing
  • Potential security concerns with transmitting sensitive data over networks
  • Less suitable for real-time control applications requiring immediate responses (17)

5.3.3 Real-Time Control Strategies

Real-time control (RTC) is a critical capability for intelligent drainage systems, enabling dynamic adjustment of system operations based on current conditions. Several approaches to real-time control are commonly used:

• Rule-Based Control:
  • Advantages: Simple to implement, easy to understand and debug, reliable for well-defined conditions
  • Disadvantages: Limited adaptability to changing conditions, may not achieve optimal performance in complex systems
• Model Predictive Control (MPC):
  • Advantages: Can optimize system performance based on predicted future conditions, considers system dynamics and constraints, adapts to changing conditions
  • Disadvantages: Requires accurate system models, computationally intensive, may be challenging to implement in real-time
• Hierarchical Control:
  • Advantages: Combines the benefits of both centralized and decentralized control, scalable to large systems, robust to component failures
  • Disadvantages: More complex to design and implement, requires careful coordination between different control layers
• Intelligent Control:
  • Advantages: Capable of learning from experience and adapting to changing conditions, can handle complex non-linear systems, may achieve better performance than traditional methods
  • Disadvantages: Requires significant training data, may be difficult to understand and debug, performance can vary depending on the quality of training data (17)

6. European and American Standards and Specifications

6.1 European Standards for Drainage Systems

European standards for drainage systems are developed and maintained by the European Committee for Standardization (CEN) and its technical committees. These standards provide a common framework for the design, construction, operation, and maintenance of drainage systems across Europe.

6.1.1 EN 752:2022 - Drain and Sewer Systems Outside Buildings

EN 752:2022 is one of the most important European standards for drainage systems. It specifies general requirements for the design, construction, and maintenance of drain and sewer systems outside buildings. The standard covers both gravity and pressure systems for foul water, surface water, and wastewater (22).

Key aspects covered by EN 752:2022 include:

• System design principles: General principles for the design of drainage systems, including consideration of hydraulic capacity, environmental protection, and structural stability
• Material requirements: Specifications for materials used in drainage systems, including pipes, fittings, manholes, and other components
• Installation requirements: Requirements for the installation of drainage systems, including excavation, bedding, jointing, and backfilling
• Testing procedures: Methods for testing the integrity and performance of drainage systems after installation
• Maintenance requirements: Recommendations for the ongoing maintenance and inspection of drainage systems
• Environmental considerations: Requirements for protecting the environment from potential impacts of drainage systems, including prevention of pollution and protection of groundwater (22)

EN 752:2022 is supported by a series of complementary standards that provide more detailed requirements for specific aspects of drainage systems, such as EN 12056 (discharge systems inside buildings), EN 13598 (drainage systems for buildings and settlements), and EN 16957 (sewer systems - requirements for maintenance work).

6.1.2 BS EN 805:2025 - Water Supply Requirements for Systems and Components Outside Buildings

BS EN 805:2025 is a European standard that specifies requirements for water supply systems outside buildings, including potable water mains, service pipes, service reservoirs, and raw water mains. While primarily focused on water supply, this standard also has relevance for drainage systems in terms of integration and interaction between water supply and drainage systems (22).

Key aspects covered by BS EN 805:2025 include:

• General requirements: Overall requirements for water supply systems, including functionality, reliability, and safety
• Component requirements: Requirements for various components of water supply systems, including pipes, valves, pumps, and storage tanks
• Product standards: Requirements for inclusion in product standards, which may include more stringent specifications
• Installation, testing, and commissioning: Requirements for the installation, site testing, and commissioning of water supply systems
• Application scope: The standard applies to the design and construction of new water supply systems, extension of existing systems, interconnections between systems, and significant modification or rehabilitation of existing systems (22)

6.1.3 European Union Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive

The European Union Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive (UWWTD) is a key piece of environmental legislation that sets minimum requirements for the collection, treatment, and discharge of urban wastewater (21). The revised directive, which entered into force on 1 January 2025, strengthens previous requirements and includes new provisions related to smart monitoring and management of wastewater systems.

Key provisions of the revised UWWTD include:

• Extended coverage: Requires EU countries to ensure that all urban areas properly collect and treat wastewater, with specific provisions for small urban areas that were previously exempt
• Enhanced treatment requirements: Stricter requirements for wastewater treatment, particularly regarding nutrients and micropollutants
• Combined sewer overflow (CSO) management: More stringent requirements for the management of CSOs, including limits on frequency and duration of discharges
• Smart monitoring requirements: Mandates the use of advanced monitoring and control technologies to optimize wastewater collection and treatment
• Digital transformation: Requires member states to promote the digital transformation of wastewater management, including the use of smart technologies for monitoring, analysis, and decision-making
• Public information: Requires regular publication of data on wastewater collection and treatment performance (21)

The revised UWWTD drives innovation in the water sector by requiring EU countries to adopt cost-effective solutions that integrate smart technologies into wastewater management, thereby improving efficiency, reducing pollution, and enhancing environmental protection.

6.2 American Standards for Drainage Systems

American standards for drainage systems are developed by various organizations, including the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), the American National Standards Institute (ANSI), and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). These standards provide guidance for the design, construction, operation, and maintenance of drainage systems in the United States.

6.2.1 ASCE/EWRI 12-13, 13-13, 14-13 Standards

The ASCE/EWRI 12-13, 13-13, and 14-13 standards provide comprehensive guidance for the design, installation, and operation and maintenance of urban subsurface drainage systems. These standards are developed by the Urban Drainage Standards Committee of the Environmental and Water Resources Institute (EWRI) of ASCE (24).

ASCE/EWRI 12-13: Standard Guidelines for the Design of Urban Subsurface Drainage

This standard provides guidelines for the design of urban subsurface drainage systems, covering topics such as:

• Site analysis: Procedures for evaluating site conditions that affect drainage system design
• System configuration: Principles for designing effective drainage system layouts
• Hydraulics and hydrology: Methods for calculating flows and sizing drainage components
• Structural considerations: Requirements for ensuring the structural integrity of drainage components
• Materials: Specifications for materials used in drainage systems
• Special considerations: Guidance for designing drainage systems in special situations, such as near water bodies or in areas with high groundwater tables (24)

ASCE/EWRI 13-13: Standard Guidelines for the Installation of Urban Subsurface Drainage

This standard focuses on the installation of urban subsurface drainage systems, covering topics such as:

• Site investigation: Procedures for investigating site conditions before installation
• Installation procedures: Methods for installing various types of drainage components, including pipes, drains, and appurtenances
• Inspection: Requirements for inspecting materials, equipment, and construction during installation
• Testing: Methods for testing the performance of installed drainage systems
• Quality control: Procedures for ensuring the quality of installation work (24)

ASCE/EWRI 14-13: Standard Guidelines for the Operation and Maintenance of Urban Subsurface Drainage

This standard provides guidelines for the operation and maintenance of urban subsurface drainage systems, covering topics such as:

• Operation and maintenance (O&M) planning: Development of comprehensive O&M plans
• Safety: Safety considerations for personnel working on or near drainage systems
• Water quality: Measures for protecting water quality through proper system operation
• Inspection: Procedures for inspecting drainage systems to identify problems
• Maintenance: Methods for maintaining drainage systems to ensure proper functioning
• Rehabilitation: Strategies for rehabilitating aging or damaged drainage systems (24)

6.2.2 EPA Smart Sewer Technology Guidelines

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has developed guidelines and resources related to smart sewer technologies, which are increasingly being incorporated into drainage system standards and practices (30).

Key aspects of EPA's guidance on smart sewer technologies include:

• Computerized Maintenance Management Systems (CMMS): These systems allow users to create and track corrective work orders, optimize preventive maintenance schedules, manage maintenance crews and other staff, and prioritize inspections (30)
• Condition Assessment: Use of advanced technologies such as CCTV inspection, sonar, and other methods to assess the condition of sewer systems
• Real-Time Monitoring: Deployment of sensors and other monitoring devices to collect real-time data on system conditions
• Real-Time Control: Use of real-time data to dynamically adjust system operations and optimize performance
• Predictive Analytics: Application of advanced analytics and modeling techniques to predict system behavior and identify potential problems before they occur
• Integrated Asset Management: Comprehensive approach to managing drainage assets throughout their lifecycle (30)

The EPA's guidance emphasizes the importance of integrating these smart technologies into comprehensive drainage system management programs to improve system performance, reduce costs, and protect public health and the environment.

6.2.3 Water Research Foundation Smart Sewer System Project

The Water Research Foundation has undertaken a comprehensive research project to evaluate experiences, best practices, and costs of smart sewer approaches. The project aims to develop a utility-facing practical guide to help utilities identify opportunities and implement smart sewer systems (12).

Key objectives of the Water Research Foundation project include:

• Comprehensive evaluation: Provide a thorough assessment of the technical, operational, and economic aspects of smart sewer systems
• Best practices development: Identify and document best practices for implementing and operating smart sewer systems
• Cost analysis: Develop guidance on estimating the costs and benefits of smart sewer systems
• Implementation guidance: Provide utilities with strategies and tactics for scoping capital and operations programs related to smart sewer systems
• Regulatory compliance: Assist utilities in meeting regulatory requirements through smart sewer approaches
• Cross-utility applicability: Ensure that the guidance is applicable to utilities of all sizes and types, including both separate and combined sewer systems (12)

The project's findings and recommendations are expected to influence future standards and practices for the design, implementation, and operation of smart drainage systems in the United States.

6.3 Comparison of European and American Standards

European and American standards for drainage systems share many common objectives, including ensuring the safe and effective collection and conveyance of wastewater and stormwater while protecting public health and the environment. However, there are also notable differences in approach, scope, and technical requirements.

6.3.1 Structural and Organizational Differences

European standards are typically developed through a centralized process by CEN, with input from national standards bodies across Europe. Once published, these standards are adopted by member countries and become part of their national standards framework. This approach promotes harmonization across Europe while allowing for some flexibility to address local conditions and requirements (22).

In contrast, American standards are developed by multiple organizations, including ASCE, ANSI, and the EPA, each with their own areas of responsibility and expertise. This decentralized approach allows for greater specialization but can also lead to some overlap and potential conflicts between different standards (24).

6.3.2 Technical Approach Differences

European standards tend to take a more principles-based approach, providing general requirements and allowing flexibility in how those requirements are met, as long as the overall objectives are achieved. This approach encourages innovation and allows for adaptation to local conditions (22).

American standards, particularly those developed by ASCE, often take a more prescriptive approach, providing detailed specifications and procedures that must be followed. This approach provides clear guidance but may be less flexible and slower to adapt to new technologies and practices (24).

6.3.3 Regulatory Framework Differences

European standards are closely integrated with EU environmental legislation, such as the Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive, which sets minimum requirements for wastewater collection and treatment across member states. This integration ensures that standards are aligned with broader environmental objectives and regulatory requirements (21).

In the United States, standards developed by organizations like ASCE and ANSI exist alongside regulations established by the EPA, which has authority under the Clean Water Act to set and enforce standards for wastewater discharge. While there is coordination between these standards and regulations, they are developed through separate processes and may not always be fully aligned (30).

6.3.4 Specific Technical Requirements Comparison

A comparison of specific technical requirements reveals both similarities and differences between European and American standards:

• Hydraulic Design: Both European and American standards provide methods for calculating flows and sizing drainage components, but the specific equations and parameters used may differ
• Material Specifications: Both sets of standards specify requirements for materials used in drainage systems, but the specific materials and performance criteria may vary
• Installation Requirements: Both sets of standards provide guidance on proper installation techniques, but the details of these requirements may differ
• Testing and Inspection: Both sets of standards include requirements for testing and inspecting drainage systems, but the specific methods and acceptance criteria may vary
• Maintenance Requirements: Both sets of standards address the importance of ongoing maintenance, but the approaches to maintenance planning and execution may differ (22)

6.3.5 Integration of Smart Technologies

Both European and American standards are increasingly incorporating requirements related to smart technologies in drainage systems, although the approaches differ somewhat:

• European Approach: The revised EU Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive mandates the use of smart monitoring and control technologies, which is driving the development of standards that incorporate these requirements. European standards are evolving to emphasize the integration of smart technologies into comprehensive wastewater management systems (21)
• American Approach: The EPA and organizations like the Water Research Foundation are promoting the adoption of smart sewer technologies through guidance documents and research projects, which are influencing the development of standards by organizations like ASCE. American standards are increasingly incorporating provisions for smart monitoring, control, and asset management (12)

While the specific approaches differ, both regions are moving toward greater integration of smart technologies into drainage system standards and practices, recognizing their potential to improve system performance, reduce costs, and enhance environmental protection.

7. System Optimization and Future Trends

7.1 Advanced Optimization Techniques

The optimization of intelligent drainage systems is an ongoing process that involves continuous improvement based on system performance data and emerging technologies. This section discusses several advanced optimization techniques that are transforming the field.

7.1.1 Deep Learning for Drainage System Control

Deep learning, a subset of artificial intelligence that uses neural networks with multiple layers, is increasingly being applied to drainage system control and optimization. This approach offers several advantages over traditional methods:

• Capability to model complex non-linear relationships: Deep learning models can capture complex relationships between inputs and outputs that may be difficult or impossible to model using traditional mathematical approaches
• Adaptability to changing conditions: These models can learn from new data and adapt to changing system conditions over time
• Ability to process high-dimensional data: Deep learning models can effectively process large amounts of data from multiple sensors simultaneously
• Potential for improved performance: In many cases, deep learning models can achieve better performance than traditional methods, particularly for complex systems with many variables (17)

A notable example of deep learning application in drainage systems is the combination of the Minimum Scaled Consensus Control (MSCC) strategy with the Deep Deterministic Policy Gradient (DDPG) algorithm. This hierarchical control strategy operates at both global and local levels to optimally distribute flows and minimize flooding events (17).

7.1.2 Digital Twin Technology

Digital twin technology is revolutionizing drainage system management by creating virtual replicas of physical systems that can be used for simulation, analysis, and optimization. A drainage system digital twin typically includes:

• Physical model: A detailed computational model of the drainage system that simulates fluid flow and other physical processes
• Data integration: Integration of real-time sensor data with the physical model to maintain an accurate representation of current system conditions
• Analytics and visualization: Advanced analytics and visualization tools for exploring system behavior and identifying optimization opportunities
• Scenario testing: Capability to test various scenarios and evaluate the potential impacts of different management strategies (2)

Key applications of digital twin technology in drainage systems include:

• Real-time optimization: Using the digital twin to simulate different operational strategies and identify the optimal response to current conditions
• Predictive maintenance: Using the digital twin to predict equipment failures and schedule maintenance proactively
• Design optimization: Using the digital twin to evaluate different design options and select the most effective and cost-efficient solutions
• Risk assessment: Using the digital twin to assess risks from extreme weather events and other potential disruptions
• Stakeholder communication: Using the digital twin to create visualizations that help communicate complex system behavior to stakeholders (2)

7.1.3 Multi-objective Optimization

Modern drainage systems must balance multiple objectives simultaneously, including hydraulic performance, environmental protection, cost-effectiveness, and social acceptability. Multi-objective optimization techniques provide a systematic approach to balancing these competing objectives:

• Pareto optimization: Identifies a set of solutions where no objective can be improved without degrading at least one other objective
• Weighting methods: Assign weights to different objectives and combine them into a single objective function that can be optimized using standard techniques
• Constraint methods: Treat all but one objective as constraints and optimize the remaining objective within the specified constraints
• Interactive methods: Involve decision-makers in the optimization process, allowing them to provide feedback and preferences as the process unfolds (17)

Multi-objective optimization is particularly valuable for long-term planning and design decisions, where trade-offs between different objectives are inevitable. For example, when evaluating different options for expanding or upgrading a drainage system, multi-objective optimization can help identify solutions that achieve an optimal balance between capital costs, environmental benefits, and performance improvements.

7.2 Integration with Other Urban Systems

Intelligent drainage systems are increasingly being integrated with other urban systems to create more comprehensive and efficient urban management solutions. This section discusses key integration opportunities.

7.2.1 Integration with Smart City Infrastructure

Integration with broader smart city infrastructure offers numerous benefits for drainage system management:

• Data sharing: Integration with other city systems allows for the sharing of data such as weather forecasts, traffic data, and population density information, which can enhance drainage system modeling and decision-making
• Resource coordination: Integration enables more effective coordination of resources during emergencies, such as floods or sewer overflows
• Cost savings: Shared infrastructure and data systems can reduce costs for both drainage and other city systems
• Improved citizen services: Integrated systems can provide more comprehensive and useful information to citizens, such as flood risk warnings and water quality information
• Holistic urban planning: Integration supports a more holistic approach to urban planning and development, considering the interactions between different city systems (32)

Key areas of integration with smart city infrastructure include:

• Smart weather networks: Integration with weather monitoring and forecasting systems to improve predictions of rainfall and flooding
• Smart transportation systems: Coordination between drainage systems and transportation infrastructure to minimize the impact of flooding on roads and public transportation
• Smart buildings: Integration with building management systems to optimize water use and drainage within individual buildings
• Public communication systems: Integration with citywide communication systems to ensure effective dissemination of information during emergencies (32)

7.2.2 Integration with Water Supply and Treatment Systems

Integration between drainage systems and water supply/treatment systems offers significant opportunities for optimizing urban water management:

• Water cycle management: Integration allows for a more comprehensive approach to managing the entire urban water cycle, from supply to treatment and reuse
• Resource recovery: Integration enables the recovery of valuable resources such as energy, nutrients, and water from wastewater
• Operational efficiency: Coordinated operation of water supply and drainage systems can improve overall system efficiency and reduce costs
• Environmental protection: Integrated management can better protect water resources by considering the entire lifecycle of water in the urban environment
• Resilience: Integrated systems are often more resilient to disruptions and better able to adapt to changing conditions (36)

Key examples of integration between drainage and water supply/treatment systems include:

• Watershed-scale management: Integrated management of entire watersheds, considering both water supply and drainage within a unified framework
• Water recycling and reuse: Integration of wastewater treatment with water supply systems to enable the reuse of treated wastewater for non-potable or even potable purposes
• Energy recovery: Recovery of energy from wastewater treatment processes for use in water supply or other city systems
• Integrated planning: Development of integrated plans that consider both water supply and drainage needs in urban development and redevelopment (36)

7.2.3 Integration with Building Systems

Integration between drainage systems and building systems represents another important area for optimization:

• Stormwater management: Integration with building stormwater systems can help reduce the burden on municipal drainage systems through techniques such as green roofs, rainwater harvesting, and permeable pavements
• Wastewater treatment: Integration with on-site wastewater treatment systems can reduce the volume of wastewater entering municipal systems and provide opportunities for resource recovery
• Water conservation: Coordination between building water use and drainage systems can promote more efficient water use and reduce wastewater generation
• Smart building integration: Integration with smart building systems allows for real-time monitoring and control of water use and drainage within buildings
• Emergency management: Integration enables better coordination between building systems and municipal drainage systems during emergencies such as floods (16)

A notable example of building integration is the campus intelligent drainage system, which incorporates five key components: perception, communication, cloud control, water storage/drainage, and identity identification. This integrated approach allows for more efficient management of stormwater and wastewater at the campus scale (16).

7.3 Future Trends in Drainage System Intelligence

The field of intelligent drainage system management is rapidly evolving, driven by advances in technology, changing regulatory requirements, and increasing awareness of the importance of sustainable urban water management. This section discusses several key trends shaping the future of the field.

7.3.1 Increased Adoption of AI and Machine Learning

Artificial intelligence and machine learning technologies are expected to play an increasingly prominent role in drainage system management:

• Advanced predictive capabilities: AI and machine learning will enable more accurate predictions of system behavior under various conditions, including extreme weather events
• Automated decision-making: These technologies will increasingly be used to automate routine decisions and even some complex decisions, reducing the need for manual intervention
• Anomaly detection: Advanced machine learning algorithms will improve the detection of 异常 conditions and potential problems in drainage systems
• Personalization: AI will enable more personalized approaches to drainage system management, tailoring strategies to specific local conditions and needs
• Continuous learning: Systems will increasingly be able to learn from experience and improve their performance over time without explicit reprogramming (17)

A particularly promising area is the application of deep reinforcement learning to drainage system control, which allows systems to learn optimal control strategies through trial and error in simulated environments before applying them in the real world (17).

7.3.2 Expansion of Sensor Networks and Internet of Things (IoT)

The expansion of sensor networks and IoT technologies will continue to transform drainage system management:

• Denser sensor networks: More sensors will be deployed at more locations throughout drainage systems, providing more comprehensive and detailed data
• Multi-parameter sensors: Sensors will increasingly be capable of measuring multiple parameters simultaneously, providing more holistic views of system conditions
• Lower-cost sensors: Advances in technology will lead to lower-cost sensors, making it economically feasible to deploy larger numbers of sensors
• Longer battery life: Improvements in battery technology and energy efficiency will allow sensors to operate for longer periods without replacement
• Edge computing: More processing will be done at the sensor or edge device level, reducing the amount of data that needs to be transmitted and enabling faster decision-making (29)

The expansion of IoT in drainage systems will also enable new applications, such as the use of wastewater-based epidemiology to detect public health threats like COVID-19 outbreaks through the analysis of wastewater samples (32).

7.3.3 Greater Focus on Sustainability and Circular Economy

The drainage systems of the future will increasingly incorporate principles of sustainability and the circular economy:

• Resource recovery: Systems will be designed to recover valuable resources such as water, energy, and nutrients from wastewater
• Green infrastructure: Increased integration of green infrastructure such as bioswales, rain gardens, and permeable pavements will reduce the burden on traditional drainage systems
• Energy efficiency: Systems will be optimized to minimize energy consumption, with a growing emphasis on renewable energy sources
• Carbon footprint reduction: Drainage system design and operation will increasingly consider carbon emissions and seek to minimize the sector's carbon footprint
• Sustainable materials: The use of sustainable and recycled materials in drainage system construction and rehabilitation will increase (33)

The circular economy approach to drainage systems recognizes wastewater not as a waste product but as a resource that can be managed and reused to create value, while also protecting public health and the environment.

7.3.4 Enhanced Cybersecurity Measures

As drainage systems become more connected and reliant on digital technologies, cybersecurity will become an increasingly important consideration:

• Increased threats: The greater connectivity of modern drainage systems creates new vulnerabilities to cyber threats, including hacking, data breaches, and ransomware attacks
• Critical infrastructure protection: Drainage systems are increasingly recognized as critical infrastructure, making their protection a priority for governments and utilities
• Regulatory requirements: New regulations and standards will require enhanced cybersecurity measures for drainage systems
• Security by design: Cybersecurity will be integrated into the design of new systems from the outset, rather than added as an afterthought
• Advanced security technologies: The adoption of advanced security technologies such as encryption, intrusion detection systems, and blockchain for data integrity will increase (12)

Key cybersecurity measures for drainage systems include:

• Network segmentation: Isolation of critical systems from less secure networks
• Secure authentication: Implementation of strong authentication mechanisms for all system access
• Data encryption: Encryption of data both at rest and in transit
• Regular security audits: Conduct of regular security audits and penetration testing to identify vulnerabilities
• Employee training: Training of employees on cybersecurity best practices and threat awareness (12)

8. Implementation Recommendations for Engineering Teams

8.1 Phased Implementation Approach

A phased implementation approach is recommended for engineering teams looking to develop or upgrade their drainage system intelligence capabilities. This approach allows for incremental progress, early wins, and continuous improvement.

8.1.1 Phase 1: Assessment and Planning

The first phase focuses on understanding current conditions and developing a clear roadmap for system development:

• Current state assessment: Conduct a comprehensive assessment of the existing drainage system, including its physical condition, data collection capabilities, analytical tools, and management practices
• Needs analysis: Identify specific needs and pain points in current system management that could be addressed through increased intelligence
• Technology review: Conduct a review of available technologies and solutions that could address identified needs
• Stakeholder engagement: Engage with all relevant stakeholders to understand their perspectives and requirements
• Implementation roadmap: Develop a detailed roadmap for system development, including clear objectives, timelines, and success metrics
• Budget development: Prepare a comprehensive budget that includes costs for hardware, software, personnel, training, and ongoing maintenance (12)

Key deliverables for this phase include a detailed assessment report, a prioritized list of improvement opportunities, and a comprehensive implementation plan.

8.1.2 Phase 2: Pilot Projects and Proof of Concept

The second phase involves implementing small-scale pilot projects to test specific technologies and approaches:

• Priority identification: Based on the assessment, identify 2-3 high-priority areas where intelligent technologies could provide significant benefits
• Pilot design: Develop detailed designs for pilot projects in the identified priority areas
• Technology selection: Select appropriate technologies for each pilot project based on performance, cost, and compatibility with existing systems
• Implementation: Implement the pilot projects, focusing on thorough documentation and data collection
• Performance evaluation: Evaluate the performance of the pilot projects against pre-established metrics
• Lessons learned: Document lessons learned from the pilot projects to inform future implementations (12)

Pilot projects provide several benefits, including the opportunity to test technologies in real-world conditions, build stakeholder confidence, and refine implementation approaches before scaling up.

8.1.3 Phase 3: System Expansion and Integration

The third phase involves expanding successful pilot projects and integrating various components into a cohesive system:

• Expansion planning: Develop detailed plans for expanding successful pilot projects to other areas of the drainage system
• Technology standardization: Establish standards for technologies, data formats, and communication protocols to ensure interoperability
• System integration: Integrate data from various sources and systems into a unified platform for comprehensive monitoring and analysis
• Process development: Develop standardized processes for data collection, analysis, decision-making, and reporting
• Training: Provide comprehensive training to all relevant personnel on the expanded system and its operation
• Governance framework: Establish a governance framework for ongoing system management and evolution (12)

This phase focuses on creating a unified system that leverages the lessons learned from pilot projects and provides comprehensive intelligence capabilities across the entire drainage system.

8.1.4 Phase 4: Continuous Improvement and Optimization

The final phase is focused on continuous improvement and optimization of the intelligent drainage system:

• Performance monitoring: Establish ongoing monitoring of system performance against established metrics
• User feedback: Regularly solicit feedback from system users to identify areas for improvement
• Technology refresh: Regularly review and update system technologies to take advantage of new innovations
• Process refinement: Continuously refine operational processes based on performance data and user feedback
• Advanced analytics: Implement increasingly sophisticated analytical techniques as system maturity and data availability allow
• Knowledge management: Establish mechanisms for capturing and sharing knowledge gained from system operation and improvement (12)

This phase recognizes that intelligent drainage system development is an ongoing process rather than a one-time project, requiring continuous investment in technology, data, and personnel.

8.2 Key Success Factors

Several key factors contribute to the success of intelligent drainage system implementations. Engineering teams should focus on these factors to maximize the benefits of their investments.

8.2.1 Leadership and Governance

Strong leadership and effective governance are essential for successful intelligent drainage system development:

• Executive sponsorship: The project should have strong support from senior leadership within the organization
• Cross-functional team: A cross-functional team representing all relevant departments (engineering, operations, IT, environmental, etc.) should be established
• Clear roles and responsibilities: Roles and responsibilities for all team members and stakeholders should be clearly defined
• Governance structure: An effective governance structure should be established to guide decision-making and resource allocation
• Stakeholder engagement: Regular engagement with all relevant stakeholders, including internal staff, external partners, and the public, is essential (12)

8.2.2 Data Quality and Management

The quality and management of data are critical to the success of intelligent drainage systems:

• Data quality standards: Establish clear standards for data quality, including accuracy, precision, completeness, and timeliness
• Data governance: Develop a comprehensive data governance framework that addresses data ownership, access, security, and retention
• Data integration: Establish processes for integrating data from diverse sources into a unified system
• Data validation: Implement robust procedures for validating and cleaning data before analysis
• Metadata management: Develop and maintain comprehensive metadata to ensure data is properly understood and used
• Data visualization: Invest in effective data visualization tools to make complex data accessible to decision-makers (12)

8.2.3 Technology Selection and Integration

Careful technology selection and integration are essential for creating an effective intelligent drainage system:

• Needs-based selection: Select technologies based on clearly defined needs and requirements, not just the latest trends
• Open standards: Prefer technologies that adhere to open standards to ensure interoperability and avoid vendor lock-in
• Scalability: Select technologies that can scale with the organization's needs and the growing volume of data
• Modularity: Design the system using modular components that can be updated or replaced independently
• Integration planning: Develop a comprehensive plan for integrating new technologies with existing systems
• Future-proofing: Consider future technological developments and system requirements when making technology choices (12)

8.2.4 Organizational Change Management

Intelligent drainage systems often require significant organizational changes, making effective change management essential:

• Change leadership: Identify and empower change leaders within the organization who can advocate for the new system
• Vision and communication: Develop a clear vision for the new system and communicate it effectively throughout the organization
• Resistance management: Anticipate and address potential resistance to change through open communication and involvement in the process
• Skill development: Identify required skills and provide appropriate training and development opportunities
• Incentives: Align incentives with the successful adoption of the new system and associated practices
• Celebrate successes: Recognize and celebrate successes, both large and small, to maintain momentum and build confidence (12)

8.3 Cost-Benefit Analysis Framework

A comprehensive cost-benefit analysis is essential for justifying investments in intelligent drainage systems and guiding resource allocation. This section provides a framework for conducting such an analysis.

8.3.1 Cost Components

The costs associated with intelligent drainage systems can be categorized into several main components:

• Capital costs:
  • Hardware costs (sensors, data loggers, communication equipment, servers, etc.)
  • Software costs (licenses, development, customization)
  • Installation costs (labor, materials, equipment)
  • Design and engineering costs
  • Testing and commissioning costs
• Operational costs:
  • Energy costs
  • Maintenance and repair costs
  • Software licensing and maintenance fees
  • Data storage and processing costs
  • Personnel costs (operation, maintenance, administration)
  • Training costs
• Supporting infrastructure costs:
  • Upgrades to power systems
  • Upgrades to communication infrastructure
  • Data center upgrades or expansion
• Opportunity costs:
  • Costs associated with diverting resources from other projects
  • Costs associated with potential disruptions during implementation (12)

It's important to consider not only direct costs but also indirect costs and opportunity costs when conducting a comprehensive cost analysis.

8.3.2 Benefit Components

The benefits of intelligent drainage systems are diverse and can be both tangible and intangible. Key benefit categories include:

• Environmental benefits:
  • Reduced pollution of water bodies
  • Improved water quality
  • Reduced greenhouse gas emissions
  • Enhanced ecosystem health
• Economic benefits:
  • Reduced costs from flooding and sewer overflows
  • Reduced treatment costs
  • Improved asset management and reduced infrastructure replacement costs
  • Increased property values in less flood-prone areas
  • Reduced business interruptions
• Social benefits:
  • Improved public health and safety
  • Reduced inconvenience from flooding
  • Enhanced quality of life
  • Increased public confidence in infrastructure
• Operational benefits:
  • Improved system efficiency
  • Enhanced decision-making capabilities
  • Better resource allocation
  • Increased ability to respond to emergencies
  • Improved regulatory compliance (12)

Assigning monetary values to all these benefits can be challenging, particularly for intangible benefits. However, various methods exist for estimating these values, including market-based approaches, hedonic pricing, and contingent valuation.

8.3.3 Return on Investment (ROI) Analysis

Return on investment analysis compares the net benefits of a project to its costs, typically expressed as a percentage or ratio:

• ROI calculation: ROI = (Net Benefits / Costs) x 100%
• Payback period: The time required for the cumulative benefits to equal the cumulative costs
• Net present value (NPV): The present value of future benefits minus the present value of future costs
• Internal rate of return (IRR): The discount rate that makes the NPV of a project zero

When conducting ROI analysis for intelligent drainage systems, it's important to:

• Consider the full lifecycle: Analyze costs and benefits over the entire lifecycle of the system, typically 15-20 years
• Use appropriate discount rates: Apply discount rates that reflect the organization's cost of capital and risk tolerance
• Account for uncertainty: Conduct sensitivity analysis to understand how variations in key assumptions affect the results
• Compare alternatives: Compare the ROI of different investment options to prioritize the most beneficial projects
• Consider non-monetary factors: While monetary ROI is important, also consider non-monetary factors that may influence decision-making (12)

The case studies presented earlier in this manual demonstrate significant ROI for intelligent drainage systems. For example, the Louisville and Jefferson County smart sewer system achieved a 58% reduction in capital investment costs compared to traditional approaches, while preventing 1 billion gallons of sewage from entering local waterways annually (10). Similarly, the South Bend smart sewer system saved an estimated $500 million compared to the original long-term control plan (13).

9. Conclusion

9.1 Summary of Key Findings

This technical manual has provided a comprehensive overview of underground drainage pipe network intelligent operation and management systems for engineering professionals. Key findings include:

1. System Architecture: Intelligent drainage systems typically adopt a three-tier architecture comprising a Perception Layer for data collection, a Network Layer for data transmission, and an Application Layer for data processing and user interaction (3).
2. Core Components: These systems rely on a variety of technologies, including sensors for data collection, communication networks for data transmission, and advanced software platforms for data analysis and decision support (12).
3. Implementation Process: Successful implementation involves careful planning, including requirements analysis, hardware and software selection, system integration and testing, and thorough training for users (12).
4. International Case Studies: Examples from Louisville (USA), Munich (Germany), and South Bend (USA) demonstrate the practical application of intelligent drainage systems and their benefits in terms of cost savings, improved performance, and environmental protection (10).
5. Technology Comparison: Different sensor technologies, communication methods, and data processing approaches offer varying advantages and disadvantages, requiring careful consideration based on specific project needs (12).
6. Standards and Specifications: Both European and American standards are evolving to incorporate smart monitoring and management requirements, with the revised EU Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive and EPA smart sewer guidelines leading the way (21).
7. Future Trends: The field is evolving toward greater use of AI and machine learning, expansion of IoT sensor networks, increased focus on sustainability, and enhanced cybersecurity measures (17).
8. Implementation Recommendations: A phased implementation approach, focusing on assessment and planning, pilot projects, system expansion, and continuous improvement, is recommended for engineering teams looking to develop or upgrade their drainage system intelligence capabilities (12).

9.2 Implications for Engineering Practice

The findings of this manual have several important implications for engineering practice:

1. Shift from Reactive to Proactive Management: Intelligent drainage systems enable a shift from reactive, crisis-driven management to proactive, data-driven management, allowing engineers to anticipate and prevent problems before they occur (13).
2. Need for Cross-Disciplinary Expertise: Successful implementation of these systems requires a blend of traditional civil engineering knowledge with expertise in data science, computer science, and systems engineering (17).
3. Importance of Data Quality and Management: The value of intelligent drainage systems depends heavily on the quality and management of data, emphasizing the need for robust data governance frameworks (12).
4. Integration with Other Systems: Engineers should consider the integration of drainage systems with other urban systems, such as water supply, transportation, and building systems, to achieve comprehensive urban water management (32).
5. Balancing Innovation with Practicality: While emerging technologies offer exciting possibilities, engineers must balance innovation with practical considerations such as cost, reliability, and maintainability (12).

9.3 Future Directions for Research and Development

Several areas warrant further research and development to advance the field of intelligent drainage system management:

1. Advanced Machine Learning Applications: Further research is needed to develop and validate advanced machine learning models for drainage system modeling, prediction, and control (17).
2. Digital Twin Development: Development of more sophisticated digital twin models that incorporate additional physical processes and system interactions would enhance predictive capabilities and decision support (2).
3. Edge Computing Optimization: Research into optimizing edge computing applications for drainage systems could improve real-time decision-making capabilities while reducing data transmission requirements (17).
4. Cybersecurity Enhancement: Further development of cybersecurity measures specifically tailored to the unique challenges of intelligent drainage systems is needed (12).
5. Standardization and Interoperability: Research into standardization of data formats, communication protocols, and system interfaces would enhance interoperability and facilitate data sharing between different systems and organizations (21).
6. Sustainability Metrics and Optimization: Development of comprehensive sustainability metrics and optimization approaches for drainage systems would support more sustainable urban water management practices (33).

By continuing to advance the science and practice of intelligent drainage system management, engineers can contribute to the development of more resilient, sustainable, and efficient urban water systems that better serve the needs of communities while protecting public health and the environment.

参考资料

[1] Southern Water unveils industry-leading £15 million Smart Sewer Technology in battle against pollution - Southern Water: Water for life, Water and wastewater services for Kent, Sussex, Hampshire and the Isle of Wight https://www.southernwater.co.uk/the-news-room/the-media-centre/2023/january/southern-water-unveils-industry-leading-15-million-smart-sewer-technology-in-battle-against-pollution

[2] Case Study | New drainage master plan for Munich's sewer network | Nivus https://www.nivus.com/en/products-solutions/solutions-applications/case-studies/case-study-new-drainage-master-plan-for-munichs-sewer-network

[3] 煤矿智能化排水系统的应用研究 https://www.chinacaj.net/MKSJ/doi/10.11799/ce202410017

[4] 变电站电缆层汛情监测及智能排水系统的研制 http://ncdqh.xml-journal.net/article/doi/10.13882/j.cnki.ncdqh.2024.06.016

[5] Our City Makes Every Effort to Boost Intelligent Management of Smart Drainage - Nanchang Municipal People's Government http://www.nc.gov.cn/english/News/202306/4f303632b3c740d8b17e92683534504a.shtml

[6] researchontheconstructionofintelligentdrainagemanagementsystemindianburiverbasinofhefei http://zggsps.paperonce.org/en/oa/DArticle.aspx?id=202420019&type=view

[7] SD-1800智能零气耗排水器-— Smart Drain 标准智能-南京乔克空压设备有限公司 http://www.xn--jjq15e.com/p41/110.html

[8] T-CSUS《城镇排水管网运行和维护智能化技术标准》.pdf-原创力文档 https://max.book118.com/html/2024/0630/6113145050010153.shtm

[9] 基于plc控制的煤矿井下泵房自动排水控制系统改造 modification design on automatical control system of drainage based on plc in zhouyuanshan coal mine.pdf -原创力文档 https://m.book118.com/html/2017/0810/127127187.shtm

[10] Smart Sewers | US EPA https://www.epa.gov/npdes/smart-sewers

[11] Case Study | Smart Stormwater Components Address Multiple Needs With One Solution https://info.burnsmcd.com/case-study/smart-stormwater-components-address-multiple-needs-with-one-solution

[12] Implementing a Smart Sewer System to Optimize Capacity to Reduce Surface Flooding and Sewer Overflows | The Water Research Foundation https://www.waterrf.org/research/projects/implementing-smart-sewer-system-optimize-capacity-reduce-surface-flooding-and

[13] South Bend, Indiana Uses Smart Technology to Monitor and Regulate Wastewater Levels: Case Studies: ERIT: Environmental Resilience Institute: Indiana University https://eri.iu.edu/erit/case-studies/south-bend-indiana-uses-smart-technology-to-monitor-and-regulate-wastewater-levels.html

[14] 流域治理视角下构建弹性城市排水系统实时控制策略-中国给水排水 http://zggsps.paperonce.org/oa/DArticle.aspx?id=202014010&type=view

[15] 2023给排水管网运行安全智能监管系统设计指南.docx - 人人文库 https://m.renrendoc.com/paper/290327349.html

[16] A Intelligent Campus Based on the Internet of Things------Campus Intelligent Drainage System(pdf) https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/bb68/cc28133faa9fa099b605d189f1a43ae7b690.pdf

[17] Control of Urban Drainage Systems: Optimal Flow Control and Deep Learning in Action https://m.zhangqiaokeyan.com/academic-conference-foreign_meeting-229317_thesis/020516357256.html

[18] 城镇排水系统厂站网一体化运行监测与智能化管理技术规程解读 https://m.antpedia.com/standard/1710585234-10.html

[19] 赛莱默 飞力Bibo泵矿井排水示意 赛莱默 飞力Bibo是一台真正的集成智能排水泵，即插即用，效率优化。 为了应对采矿和建筑行业排水对降低水总成本的日益增长的需求，这款排水泵非常坚固、紧凑、稳定，并且与传统泵一样快速、易于安装。 这是第一台不依据固定曲线而是依据在流量和扬程的性能区域内进行调整的潜水排水泵，可以满足各种应用的需求。 这项新排水技术将现在以及未来所需的灵活性提升到一个新水平。-抖音

为了应对采矿和建筑行业排水对降低水总成本的日益增长的需求，这款排水泵非常坚固、紧凑、稳定，并且与传统泵一样快速、易于安装。 这是第一台不依据固定曲线而是依据在流量和扬程的性能区域内进行调整的潜水排水泵，可以满足各种应用的需求。 这项新排水技术将现在以及未来所需的灵活性提升到一个新水平。-抖音

这是第一台不依据固定曲线而是依据在流量和扬程的性能区域内进行调整的潜水排水泵，可以满足各种应用的需求。 这项新排水技术将现在以及未来所需的灵活性提升到一个新水平。-抖音

这项新排水技术将现在以及未来所需的灵活性提升到一个新水平。-抖音 https://www.iesdouyin.com/share/video/7472256294544526592/?did=MS4wLjABAAAANwkJuWIRFOzg5uCpDRpMj4OX-QryoDgn-yYlXQnRwQQ&from_aid=1128&from_ssr=1&iid=MS4wLjABAAAANwkJuWIRFOzg5uCpDRpMj4OX-QryoDgn-yYlXQnRwQQ&mid=7472257265404316442&region=&scene_from=dy_open_search_video&share_sign=JNybmFxuyIsRiRBAuu_57xgCB_8nYF1H9SZDLOPSMTc-&share_version=280700&titleType=title&ts=1752286569&u_code=0&video_share_track_ver=&with_sec_did=1

[20] Intelligent Operation Management & Control System 中控新一代全流程智能运行管理控制系统-抖音

中控新一代全流程智能运行管理控制系统-抖音 https://www.iesdouyin.com/share/video/7143547715102739727/?did=MS4wLjABAAAANwkJuWIRFOzg5uCpDRpMj4OX-QryoDgn-yYlXQnRwQQ&from_aid=1128&from_ssr=1&iid=MS4wLjABAAAANwkJuWIRFOzg5uCpDRpMj4OX-QryoDgn-yYlXQnRwQQ&mid=7143547793133554462&region=&scene_from=dy_open_search_video&share_sign=3HkKLklSbIrLBhVouoqp3zlKzd9SmrTMWh70yvWTzJM-&share_version=280700&titleType=title&ts=1752286569&u_code=0&video_share_track_ver=&with_sec_did=1

[21] Urban wastewater - European Commission https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/water/urban-wastewater_en

[22] BS EN 805:2025 Water supply. Requirements for systems and components outside buildings https://www.en-standard.eu/bs-en-805-2025-water-supply-requirements-for-systems-and-components-outside-buildings/?mena=8

[23] European Catalogue of ICT Water Standards and Specifications | Shaping Europe’s digital future https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/library/european-catalogue-ict-water-standards-and-specifications

[24] ASCE 12, 13, 14 - Standard Guidelines for the Design, Installation, and Operation and Maintenance of Urban Subsurface Drainage | GlobalSpec https://standards.globalspec.com/std/1648551/asce-12-13-14

[25] ASCE Standard Guidelines for the Design of Urban Subsurface Drainage (ASCE/EWRI 12-2013); Standard Guidelines for the Installation of Urban Subsurface Drainage (ASCE/EWRI 13-2013); and Standard Guidelines for the Operation and Maintenance of Urban Subsurface Drainage (ASCE/EWRI 14-2013), 2013 - MADCAD.com https://www.madcad.com/store/subscription/ASCE-Standard-12-13-14-2013/

[26] Standard Guidelines for the Design, Installation, and Operation and Maintenance of Urban Subsurface Drainage (12-13, 13-13, 14-13) https://sp360.asce.org/personifyebusiness/Merchandise/Product-Details/productId/233042810

[27] Standard Guidelines for the Design, Installation, Maintenance, and Operation of Urban Subsurface Drainage (ASCE Standard No. 12-, 13-, 14-05) (ASCE/EWRI): William Archdeacon: 9780784408117: Amazon.com: Books https://www.amazon.com/Standard-Guidelines-for-the/dp/0784408114

[28] Ensure your drainage systems are safe, sustainable, and compliant | ASCE https://www.asce.org/education-and-events/explore-education/elearning-webinars/ensure-your-drainage-systems-are-safe-sustainable-and-compliant/

[29] Enhanced Technology Leads Smart Sewer Network Revolution https://www.wateronline.com/doc/enhanced-technology-leads-smart-sewer-network-revolution-0001

[30] Smart Sewer Technologies | US EPA https://www.epa.gov/npdes/smart-sewer-technologies

[31] Southern Water unveils £15 million smart sewer technology in battle against pollution - Water Magazine https://www.watermagazine.co.uk/2023/02/08/southern-water-unveils-15-million-smart-sewer-technology-in-battle-against-pollution/

[32] How smart sewers are helping to create healthier and safer cities - Tomorrow.City - The biggest platform about urban innovation https://www.tomorrow.city/how-smart-sewers-work-healthier-and-safer-cities/?_rt=MjI4fDF8Y8OhbWFyYXMgZGUgdmlnaWxhbmNpYSBlbiBsYSB2w61hIHDDumJsaWNhOiDCv3NvbiB1bmEgYnVlbmEgaWRlYXwxNzE0MzUyMjUz&_rt_nonce=bce4f65d30

[33] Wastewater Treatment Technology in 2025 | StartUs Insights https://www.startus-insights.com/innovators-guide/wastewater-treatment-technology/

[34] Toilet Drainage Standards: A Comparative Analysis Across the US, Canada, UK, EU, and Australia - Royal Toiletry Global https://royaltoiletry.com/toilet-drainage-standards-a-comparative-analysis-across-the-us-canada-uk-eu-and-australia/?srsltid=AfmBOooBPODRP9JIqvyOJeqiE-d8QP22U4RRPzh7KJ_Bn1m7TvCqFXzo

[35] American vs. European Standard Signal Output | KUS Americas, Inc. https://kus-usa.com/resources/american-vs-european-standard-signal-output

[36] Full article: European stakeholders’ visions and needs for stormwater in future urban drainage systems https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1573062X.2023.2211559